本论文由两章组成。第一章深入探讨了交际翻译和语义翻译、文本类型、翻译的标准以及它们之间的关系等问题，从而为本论文打下了核心的理论基础。第二章集中讨论了交际翻译和语义翻译在新闻翻译中的应用
第一代写网 Translation is a science as well as a skill, and each kind of skill needs theory as a guide. A successful translation is not necessary a direct result of painstaking efforts in exploring translation principles, but it should correspond to the laws of translation. Translation theory provides guidance for the practice.
1.1 Communication Translation and Semantic Translation Defined
Peter Newmark made an important contribution to the study of translation theory. His major contribution is the dichotomy of communicative translation and semantic translation, which have already been recognized as his most influential achievement in translation studies.
Newmark’s communicative translation and semantic translation are believed to be more practical than idealized discussions on translation method: “I have proposed only two methods of translation that are appropriate to any text: (a) Communicative translation, where the translator attempts to produce the same effect on the TL readers as was produced by the original on the SL readers, and (b) Semantic translation, where the translator attempts, within the bare syntactic and semantic constraints of the TL, to reproduce the precise contextual meaning of the author” (Newmark, 2004: 39). From these words, communicative translation and semantic translation can be roughly distinguished.
As this definition indicates, communicative translation focuses essentially upon the comprehension and response of TL receptors while semantic translation centers around the semantic content of the SL texts. To be more specific, “in communicative translation, the emphasis should be on conveying the message of the original in a form, which conforms to the linguistic, cultural and pragmatic conventions of TL. Both content and language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readership. Semantic translation consequently tends to strive to reproduce the form of the original as closely as TL norms will allow” (Shuttleworth and Cowie, 2004: 22).
Newmark’s communicative translation and semantic translation are the result of years of experiences undertaking the translation from English to French and from English to German. The new methods have a great bearing on translation studies, expanding translators’ horizon and offering brand new perspectives to viewing the matter of translation strategies.
1.2 Comparison between CT and ST
To lend readers more concrete understanding of relevant knowledge about communicative translation and semantic translation, this part will conduct their mutual comparisons.
1.2.1 The Differences between CT and ST
These two kinds of translation have obvious difference, according to Peter Newmark, the methods of communicative translation and semantic translation vary from each other in terms of the following aspects:
(1) Communicative translation addresses itself solely to the second reader, who does not anticipate difficulties or obscurities, and would expect a generous transfer of foreign elements into his own culture as well as his language where necessary.
Semantic translation remains within the original culture and assists the reader only in its connotations if they constitute the essential human (non-ethnic) message of the text.
(2) Communicative translation must emphasize the “force” rather than the content of the message.
Semantic translation would be more informative but less effective.
(3) A semantic translation is always inferior to its original, since it involves loss of meaning;
Communicative translation may gain in force and clarify what it loses in semantic content. The translator is trying in his own language to write a little better than the original, unless he is reproducing the well-established formulae of notes or correspondence. (Newmark, 2004: 39)
Generally, a communicative translation tends to undertranslate. It uses more generic, hold-all terms to translate difficult passages. It is smoother, simpler, clearer, more direct, more conventional, conforming to a particular register of language. It is foremost to produce the same impact or effect on SL readers and fulfill the function of TL texts to establish the communication between SL authors and TL readers. A semantic translation tends to overtranslate. It is more complex, more awkward, more detailed, more concentrated. It pursues the thought-processes and includes more meanings in its search for one nuance of meaning.
Differences between communicative translation and semantic translation can be further displayed by the following example:
谋事在人，成事在天
Version A: Man proposes, God disposes.
Version B: Man proposes, Heaven disposes.
In ancient Chinese culture, “天” means the ruler of the universe; in Western culture, God is a being conceived as the perfect, omnipotent, omniscient originator and ruler of the universe. So, the communicative translation, “God”, catering for the Western religious background, is more acceptable for Western readers. Here, Version A can be viewed as communicative translation and Version B can be viewed as semantic translation (刘士聪,谷启楠, 1997:16).
1.2.2 Similarities between CT and ST
Despite the differences, communicative translation and semantic translation are also established largely on the common ground. They “may well coincide——in particular, where the text conveys a general rather than a culturally bound message and where the matter is as important as the manner” (Newmark, 2004: 40). And they both comply with the usually syntactic equivalents for the two languages. That is to say, a translation can be more or less semantic, or more or less communicative, but without complete division. Chinese scholar Liao Qiyi presented the following similarities (2001: 188—190)：
There is no clear line splitting a SL text into one half for communication translation and the other half for semantic translation. Instead, the two methods are cooperative and complementary in coping with specific problems in translation. It is quite difficult to decide to what extent communicative translation should be more applied than semantic translation, or vice versa.
Both communicative translation and semantic translation are rooted in cognitive translation, in which translators convert SL grammar to its common TL transpositions by reducing figurative elements like idioms and colloquialism to plain and literal expressions.
Common sense or the information free from cultural restrictions can be either translated by communicative translation or semantic translation. Translators therefore should emphasize both content and form of information in translation. To handle the materials concerning religion, philosophy, art and science, the two translation methods can basically prompt similar effects because the materials are the knowledge quite familiar to SL readers and TL readers as well.
All in all, the two translation methods cannot be employed separately in practice, they both comply with the usually syntactic equivalents for the two languages. That is to say, a translation can be more or less semantic, or more or less communicative, but without complete division. Only if translators kept the two methods in a kind of harmony, would translation be successful.
1.3 Relations with Text Typology
With the development of linguistics, some translators have begun to reach a consensus that translation is a text-oriented activity. Translators can almost determine translation methods based upon the characteristics of different text types to balance the relationship between form and content of the original.
Newmark suggested that translators should consider characteristic of text types as they choose communicative translation or semantic translation. His communicative translation and semantic translation theory has close connection with his distinction of texts. Newmark suggests that translators should consider characteristics of text types as they choose communicative translation or semantic translation.
According to Buhler’s linguistic functional theory, Newmark divided all texts into three categories: expressive text, informative text and vocative text. Typical expressive text includes formal works of literature (poem, novel and drama), authoritative speech (political statements of important person, kinds of rules and regulations, laws and academic works), autobiography, prose and personal letters. Informative text stresses “truth” and the fact outside the language. Its form can be textbook, technical report, newspaper, journals and thesis, etc. Vocative text treats readers as center and its purpose is to call for readers to think and feel as the writer’s aim. Notice, propagandas and advertisements all belong to this category.
Newmark maintains that communicative translation and semantic translation can well handle the variety of texts: in general, the semantic method can be used to translate expressive texts and communicative method can be used to translate informative and vocative texts.
1.4 CT and ST and Criteria for Translating News
1.4.1 Criteria for Translating News
The criteria of translating news must be multi-layered and the attempt to work out a single criterion for dealing with all aspects of news is doomed to be in vain.
First, translation of news should be truthful. This criterion has been prescribed by the informative function of news. The most important duty of reporters is to present a real picture of what has happened by using accurate and objective language. The undying energy source of news stems exactly from the language truthfulness, which also means that translators should operate on truthful SL, and meanwhile guarantee undistorted information reproduction with truthful TL. Here truthfulness in a real sense has gone far beyond faithfulness, a common yardstick for all translation. Truthfulness actually compels translators, prior the translation, to probe into the credibility of news sources, accuracy of the news events, and preciseness of related information. Any act of transiting falsified information, deliberately or not, will lead to translators’ complete failure.
Second, translation of news needs to be esthetically pleasant. To meet this criterion, translators should attach importance to the non-information elements embedded in the original news texts including the authors’ stylistic features and social and cultural background. The reservation of such non-information elements, which contain abundant esthetic value, in fact enables readers to appreciate esthetic beauty while digesting information.
Although truthful translation of news can facilitates the communication between SL editors and TL readers, it cannot yet be counted as successful translation. Newspapers are like a “mirror”, so to speak, reflecting the reality of life, phenomena and culture in a society that readers may likewise show their interest in. Translators’ task is to discover those literal evidences in source culture through the “mirror”, and then do their best to make a pleasant presentation of the evidences for TL readers.
The above two criteria are not alienated to each other but functioning cooperatively and complementarily. Whenever the two criteria conflict with each other or cannot be met at the same time in translation, translators will have no choice but to sacrifice the esthetic value because truthfulness after all is the spirit of news.
1.4.2 Relations with CT and ST
The two criteria aim to balance the relationship between information transmission and reservation of esthetic characteristics in the translation of news texts, which are largely overlapped with the discussion scope on communicative translation and semantic translation. The first criterion pursues the highest fidelity in information transmission, and communicative translation can well meet this criterion by treating information and readers with the foremost concern; the second criterion pursues the esthetic value of news, and semantic translation does concentrate on maintaining authors’ thought patterns and writing styles.
The relationship between the criteria and communicative translation and semantic translation is exactly like that between the end and the means of translation. The two criteria set rules that translators should abide by so that the two translation methods can be applied under rigorous supervision and finally be tested, and the two methods outline operational procedures that translators can follow so that the criteria can be fulfilled.
Chapter Two
Application of Communicative Translation and Semantic Translation to Translation of News
In the previous chapter, this thesis has already discussed the text type of news, based upon which two translation criteria have been tentatively proposed. What is next, the communicative translation method and semantic translation method will be put into real practice.
News belongs to informative texts. In this type of texts, the content is of more importance than the form; the authors’ primary intention is to convey their designated information to readers instead of presenting their writing styles and language manners. Communicative translation is suitable for this type of texts. In translation, translators need to spend more efforts on TL rather than SL because the quality of TL texts is a high-stake factor influencing the effectiveness of readers’ information reception. Translators should also minimize the negative effect caused by SL grammatical rules so as to ensure faithful transfer of information thus giving TL readers the same impact as SL readers perceive.
Although news belong to informative text, whose proper translation should be communicative translation, but there are also many original expressions (political speech of government man, some important figures, etc) quoted by the reporter and they needs semantic translation. Therefore, both communicative translation and semantic translation are suitable for news translation.
2.1 Lexical Features and Translation
As the most active part in language, vocabulary always reflects the changing of society and life. From words we can know social development, emergence of new things and so on, which can also be clearly observed in news writing. Besides the general characteristics of words in other writing types, journalistic words have its own features, which make the news more vivid and genuine, at the same time, attract more readers. In this part, the features of journalistic English vocabulary and their translation will be discussed in detail.
2.1.1 Midget Words
Midget words refer to the simple-structured but actively functioning words, which enjoy wide popularity because news is believed to be “literature in a hurry”, no time given to editors to consider the elegance of the wording. Besides, easy wording can largely cater for average newspaper readers from different educational background or social classes.
Midget words include midget nouns with large information capacity and midget verbs, which is simple but lively. For instance:
aim—purpose drive—campaign talk—negotiation blast—explosion
ask—inquire axe—reduce bid—attempt drop—abandon
Communicative translation can be a workable method to translate the news texts featuring midget words because the fundamental principle of communicative translation and the basic function of midget words share much in common, i.e. to smooth and accelerate information transmission. For example:
With jobs cuts, New York is losing war of brooms
(The New York Times 27/2 2004)
The word “cut” collocates with the word “job”. Obviously, it means “reduce”. In order to achieve the communicative purpose, it is translated into “裁减”. So the whole sentence should be translated as “纽约裁减清洁工，环境卫生恶化。”
2.1.2 Abbreviations
An abbreviation refers to shortened form of a word or phrase used chiefly in writing to represent the complete form. There are two types of abbreviations frequently adopted in news: clipped Words and acronyms. For example:
deli—delicatessen expo—exposition homo—homosexual
SUV—Sports Utility Vehicle PM—Prime Minister
TP—Traffic Policeman UN—United Nations
In communicative translation of the news featuring abbreviations, the key work is still to identify the meanings of those words through journalistic conventions and replace them with corresponding Chinese equivalents. Likewise, translators are endowed with much freedom to remodel the structure of the original as necessary.
E.g. 1:
Migration raises bird-flu worries (The Wall Street Journal 2/2 2004)
候鸟迁徙让人们对禽流感忧心忡忡 (flu=influenza)
E.g.2:
U.N.officials discuss early Iraq elections(Albuquerque Journal 9/2 2004)伊拉克大选在即 联合国官员加紧讨论 (UN=United Nations)
In some cases, there is no need to translate them into Chinese any more because there are no obvious obstacles of understanding in the communication between SL editors and TL readers. For example:
Ex-CEO charged in Enron scandal (USA Today 20-22/2 2004)
涉嫌丑闻的前安然CEO受到指控
CEO, standing for Chief Executive Officer, has been widely accepted by average readers.
2.2 Characteristics of Tense and Translation
In this part, this thesis will deal with the characteristics of tense in English news, which have already been remarkably different from the conventional grammatical norm.
Newmark’s communicative translation suggests that readers are the center of translation, so TL texts should be eventually accepted and evaluated by them. When dealing with the tense, translators need also to focus their attention on the intelligibility of TL news texts. To be more specific, the translation of the tense should conform to Chinese grammar on the one hand and also respect Chinese readers’ reading habit on the other hand.
(1) The simple present tense adopted to indicate past and present
In order to stretch the immediacy and to give news readers sense of being up-to-the-date, the present tense is usually used, no matter the events take place in the past or at present. For example:
US Journalism suffers rough year in credibility
一年来，美国新闻界信誉下降
Obviously, this sentence is about a thing which happened in the past. But here, the Present Tense is used. When it is translated into Chinese, the past tense should be expressed clearly, otherwise, Chinese readers may be confused.
(2) The infinitives employed to indicate future
Future actions can be expressed by the pattern “be+infinitive”, among which “be” is frequently omitted to save space. When this pattern is translated into Chinese, the Chinese characters such as “将”, “要” and “会” that can indicate future should be used. For instance:
U.S. to ease technology sale to China
美将简化对华科技销售
2.3 Rhetorical Features and Translation
In order to make the language vivid, eye-catching and easy to understand, journalistic English often uses rhetorical devices. But they also put translators into a kind of dilemma that information should be truthfully transmitted to TL readers whereas the rhetorical features of news texts should also be reserved. Translators should use the communicative method and the semantic method alternately in dealing with the news texts characterized by figures of speech.
Communicative translation provides readers with the precise information embedded in news texts. Translators are supposed to associate the connotations of figures of speech with relevant news reports. Furthermore, translators need likewise polish their language to protect the original information from being distorted by readers.
Semantic translation helps retain the original style. Translators need first to conduct an in-depth study on the figures of speech, figuring out their connotations in the news context and comparing them with Chinese rhetoric. In specific procedures, translators may consider possible substitution by the same type of Chinese figures of speech. If it is far from likely to achieve, translators need resort to other rhetoric means in Chinese. In a word, translators should bring Chinese readers similar or even the same experience as English readers have had while appreciating the news texts. Of course, this kind of work must be conducted under the premise that the significance of accurate information should not be diminished.
(1) Metaphor is a rhetorical device that is often used in journalistic English. The news events can be made more vivid, concrete and distinctive. For example:
(1) “Congressional Democrats remain slightly puzzled about how to react to Bush’s strategy of proffering a velvet glove clutching a closed wallet.”
“国会中民主党人关于如何对布什的这种态度做出反应仍然带几分疑惑：他戴着一副天鹅绒手套，但却紧紧抓住钱包，不愿将它打开。”
Here, “proffering a velvet glove clutching a closed wallet” involves that Bush posed to be generous, but in fact he did not like to spend money on citizens.
(2) Metonymy is a figure of speech in which one word or phrase is substituted for another with which it is closely associated. It is used in journalistic English to save space, avoid repetition as well as enhancing language images and expressive effects. For instance:
“Chinese doesn’t agree to apply to the sword to solve the Gulf Crisis.”
“中国人民不主张用武力解决海湾危机。”
Here “sword” is used instead of “force”.
(3) Antithesis is a figure of speech in which sharply contrasting ideas are juxtaposed in a balanced or parallel phrase or grammatical structure. Here is an example:
Big crime, small cities
小城，大案
“Big” and “small” constitute a sharp contrast between the size of cities and the criminal record, which is intended to call for public awareness. To retain the effect and give the same feeling to Chinese readers, translators can also use a Chinese antithesis, i.e. “小” and “大”.
The above examples of handling figures of speech also indicate that the application of communicative translation and semantic translation need be controlled by translators in a flexible way with different amount emphasis on content and form.
Conclusion
Each kind of translation practice should have theoretical basis and each translation theory has its distinctive advantage which is much suitable for correspondent text. Compared with other dominant translation theories, the main spirits of Peter Newmark’s communicative translation and semantic translation are well applied to news translation. According to Newmark, communicative translation conveys the original message in a form that conforms to the linguistic, cultural and pragmatic conventions of TL; semantic translation consequently strives to reproduce the form of the original as closely as TL norms will allow.
The criteria also have special requirements to news translation on the basis of the general translation theories. Truthfulness and being esthetically pleasant are two generally accepted criteria for news style to fit for the informative functions of news.
The translation of news is really a hard task to fulfill, for journalistic English is quite different from English of other styles, whether on the lexical level or on the tense. Midget words, clipped Words and acronyms are often used in news to make the news more vivid and genuine, at the same time, attract more readers. Tense in English news has already been remarkably different from the conventional grammatical norm. In order to stretch the immediacy the simple present tense is adopted to indicate past and present. The infinitive is employed to indicate future. Certain literary devices are applied in order to appeal to the readers’ interests.
The work of news translation will improve with opening up to the outside world and increasing of communication with the outside world. The study of news translation still has a long way to go. It is hoped that the importance of this study will stimulate others to go on investigating and make new developmet.
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