本文是留学生入学coursework代写范例，题目是“Pros and Cons of Inclusion versus Self-contained Services for Disabled Students（残疾学生包容与独立服务的利弊）”，目前的研究争论了包容和独立服务的利弊。讨论在连续服务中可提供的安置方案，并列出每个安置方案对有严重认知障碍的学生的优缺点。此外，选择一个与包含严重/严重残疾学生相关的问题，并制定一个改变计划来解决这些问题。
Current research argues the pros and cons of inclusion versus self-contained services. Discuss the placement options available on the continuum of services and list the strengths and weaknesses of each placement for students with significant cognitive disabilities. In addition, choose a problem relative to the inclusion of students with severe/profound disabilities and develop a change plan to address those issues.
According to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), the educational placement of a student with disabilities is determined by the Individual Education Plan (IEP) team in accordance with the Least Restrictive Environment (LRE) provisions under IDEA §§300.114 through 300.118 (U.S. Department of Education’s Individuals with Disabilities Education Act Website). The least restrictive environment can be defined as educating children with disabilities, to the maximum extent appropriate, with children who are nondisabled (U.S. Department of Education’s Individuals with Disabilities Education Act Website §§ Sec. 300-114). The range of placements on the continuum of services model are the regular education classroom, resource classroom, special classroom, special school, homebound services, and hospitals or institutions (Ross Pike Educational Service District, p.1). These placements are ordered from least restrictive (regular education classroom) to most restrictive (hospitals or institutions) in which the number of children decrease as the continuum moves from least restrictive to most restrictive (Ross Pike Educational Service District, p.1). The Ross Pike Educational Service District highlighted another important aspect of determining placements for students with disabilities, “The IEP team is to make the placement option decision after it has been decided what are the educational goals and the necessary accommodations and services a student needs to be as successful as possible (p.2).” This is important step in allowing students with disabilities to participate in their least restrictive environment for the most time appropriate by utilizing 21st century techniques, supports, methods, services and technological strategies that make up supplementary aides and services (Ross Pike Educational Service District, p.2). Based on IDEA, our education system hopes for every student with disabilities to be included and learn with their general education peers as much as possible while accomplishing their individual educational goals. Although some students educational journey involve more restrictive classroom, there are supports in place for them to move across the continuum of services, at their own pace, to increase educational opportunities with their nondisabled peers.
Students with significant cognitive disabilities have unique and multifaceted needs. A range of information is needed (i.e. observations, assessments, interviews, background, diagnostic testing) are needed to get a complete picture of a student with a significant cognitive disability (Timberlake, 2016). The present levels of academic and functional performance can be synthesized from the information collected and ongoing data collection then appropriate, individual educational goals can be created. Supplementary aides, services, and supports enable students with significant cognitive disabilities to be educated with their nondisabled peers (Timberlake, 2016). In all of these prior steps, the IEP team must collaborate and agree upon each of them to make the most appropriate decisions for a student with a significant cognitive disability.
有严重认知障碍的学生有独特和多方面的需求。需要一系列的信息(即观察、评估、访谈、背景、诊断测试)来全面了解一个有严重认知障碍的学生(汀布莱克，2016)。目前的学术和功能表现水平可以从收集到的信息和持续的数据收集中综合出来，然后可以创建合适的个人教育目标。补充辅助、服务和支持使有严重认知障碍的学生能够与非残疾人同龄人一起接受教育(汀布莱克，2016)。在所有这些之前的步骤中，IEP团队必须相互合作，并就每个步骤达成一致，为有严重认知障碍的学生做出最合适的决定。
The educational placement options for students with disabilities include the regular education class, resource class, special class, special school, homebound services, and hospital or institution programs (Kleinert, Towles-Reeves, Quenemoen, Thurlow, Fluegge, Weseman, Kerbel, 2015).
In the regular education class, students with disabilities receive specially designed instruction with supplementary aides and services to actively engage and learn in the regular education classroom. Modifications can be made to the curriculum and accommodations can be devised so that students with disabilities can access the regular education content (Kleinert et al 2015). Assistive technology, peer supports, and individual aides can be implemented in the regular education class to support students with disabilities (Dowdy, Patton, Polloway, Smith, 2011). There are strengths and weaknesses of the inclusion setting as an optimal educational placement for students with significant cognitive disabilities. The strengths of inclusion mainly involve social and behavioral benefits. Typical peers can serve as models and mentors for students with significant cognitive disabilities in the realm of social skills (initiations and responding), appropriate behaviors, and classroom activities (cooperative learning groups) (Dowdy et al 2011). The inclusion setting fosters comparable or improved cognitive and academic outcomes, increased adaptive behavior skills, and improved self-determination skills for students with significant cognitive disabilities (Marks, Kurth, Bartz, 2014). Peer acceptance, natural friendships, and classroom community are all cultivated through the inclusion model and immensely impact students with significant cognitive disabilities positively (Dev, Haynes, 2015). One weakness of the inclusion classroom setting for students with significant cognitive disabilities is unattainable accommodations for the student, classroom, activities, assignments, and teacher or teacher assistant all day every day (Kleinert et al 2015). A large portion of instruction time is direct instruction in the regular education classroom. And regular education teachers usually lecture during direct instruction time and this learning strategy is not effective for students with significant cognitive disabilities (Kleinert et al 2015). . Therefore these students with disabilities have difficulties accessing the general education curriculum. Lastly, the lack of time, skills, training, or resources for general education teachers to collaborate and meet the needs of students with significant cognitive disabilities hinders successful inclusion (Causton-Theoharis, 2011, p.73).
In the resource class, students with disabilities receive specially designed instruction in a small, special education class. These students usually have mild to moderate disabilities and have deficits in academic skills (Dev, Hayes, 2015). They participate about a quarter of the day in the resource class and the rest of their day in the regular education class (possibly with supports) (Dev, Hayes, 2015). Because students with significant cognitive disabilities have substantial academic and functional needs, a resource classroom would not be an appropriate placement. Students with significant cognitive disabilities need supports academically and functionally (and supervision) for a large portion of the day and a resource class usually does not offer specially designed instruction in functional skills and can support students for large portions of the day (Dev, Hayes, 2015).
在资源课上，残疾学生在一个小型的特殊教育班接受特别设计的教学。这些学生通常有轻度到中度的残疾和学术技能的缺陷(Dev, Hayes, 2015)。他们每天大约有四分之一的时间参加资源课，其余时间参加常规教育课(可能有支持)(Dev, Hayes, 2015)。因为有严重认知障碍的学生有大量的学术和功能需求，资源教室将不是一个合适的位置。有严重认知障碍的学生需要在一天中的大部分时间里得到学术和功能上的支持(以及监督)，而资源类通常不提供专门设计的功能技能指导，而是可以在一天中的大部分时间里为学生提供支持(Dev, Hayes, 2015)。
In the special class, students with disabilities receive specially designed instruction in the special education classroom. These students usually have more severe and profound disabilities and have deficits in functional and academic skills (Kleinert et. al 2015). They participate about a half or more of the day in the special education classroom and the rest of the day in the regular education classroom (Causton-Theoharis, 2011, p.68). While in the regular education classroom, these students require supports such as assistive technology, behavior plans, modified curriculum and assignments, classroom environment accommodations, breaks, or paraprofessional assistance (Marks et al 2014). The special class placement is ideal for students with significant cognitive abilities. The benefits of a special class include structured learning environments and supports, more opportunities for one-on-one or small group learning, and individualized learning for students to access content and teachers to monitor progress (Kleinert et. al 2015). Students with significant cognitive disabilities need access to learning via unique and diverse methods therefore these students’ needs could be met in the special class placement (Timberlake 2016). Some disadvantages of the special class placement are the lack of social learning opportunities they would receive in the regular education classroom. Peer models and mentors along with natural friendships and encounters would be missed in the special class placement for students with significant cognitive disabilities (Kleinert et. al 2015). However, creating an arrangement between a special class placement and inclusion class placement for a student with significant cognitive disabilities would be an ideal balance of academic and functional learning along with social opportunities and learning for those students (Kleinert et. al 2015).
In the special schools, students with disabilities receive specially designed instruction in the special education classrooms at the special school. These students usually have severe or profound disabilities or significant emotional difficulties (Dev, Hayes 2015). These students have many unique and complex needs and school systems cannot meet those needs. These students may require highly specialized personnel (behavior, medical) and live on the grounds of the special school (Dev, Hayes 2015). Students with significant cognitive disabilities would benefit immensely from the structure and alternative teaching styles special schools have to offer. Special schools usually have access to a plethora of valuable resources and supports to meet the needs of their unique learners. The student to teacher ratio is much small therefore one on one instruction is a primary mode for learning and increasing students skills academically and functionally (Marks et al 2014). A major disadvantage would be the lack of socialization students with significant cognitive disabilities would be receiving in special schools. Because the only students at special schools are students with either profound learning disabilities or emotional disabilities, these students would have very limited access to regular education peers and socialization (Dev, Hayes 2015). This could be detrimental for a student with significant cognitive disabilities to have zero access to regular education peers and could affect them in the future.
For the homebound services, students with disabilities receive specially designed instruction at their home because of physical disabilities or special health problems. These students usually have fragile medical conditions or chronic illness and need consistent medical attention at home (Dev, Hayes 2015). IEP meetings are held normally, and service providers and special education teachers deliver instruction at the student’s home. Similar to special schools, homebound services benefit students with significant cognitive disabilities in regards to individualized teaching and learning (in their most comfortable environment, at home) however, they would be missing that instrumental piece of socialization with typical peers (Marks et al 2014). Another advantage of homebound services is the opportunities for collaboration of medical specialists, school specialists, and parents on a regular basis as the student is treated and instructed in the home. That high level of communication and cooperation amongst specialist and parents about a student with significant cognitive disabilities is extremely valuable for their success.
在居家服务方面，残疾学生因身体残疾或特殊健康问题在家中接受专门设计的指导。这些学生通常有脆弱的身体状况或慢性疾病，需要在家持续的医疗照顾(Dev, Hayes 2015)。IEP会议通常会举行，服务提供者和特殊教育教师会在学生家中授课。与特殊学校类似，在家服务有利于有严重认知障碍的学生进行个性化的教学和学习(在他们最舒适的环境，在家)，然而，他们将失去与典型同龄人社交的工具部分(Marks et al 2014)。在家服务的另一个优点是，在学生在家接受治疗和指导时，有机会让医疗专家、学校专家和家长定期合作。专家和家长之间关于有严重认知障碍的学生的高水平的沟通和合作对他们的成功是非常宝贵的。
For the hospital or institution programs, students with disabilities receive specially designed instruction at the hospital or institution. These students are usually mentally unstable and dangerous to themselves or others, or committed offenses determined by the judicial system to warrant removal from the community (Dev, Hayes 2015). Students with significant cognitive disabilities would receive the appropriate and intense instruction and therapy if a hospital or institution was chosen for their educational placement. Their emotional and functional needs would be met first to gain foundational skills then academic and social skills would be incorporated (Dev, Hayes 2015). Students with disabilities in hospital and institutions have extremely limited opportunities with their typical peer that is again, detrimental to their social learning (Dev, Hayes 2015). The benefits of hospitals and institutions as educational placements for students with disabilities is that they are getting the support and instruction they need from highly trained specialist in individualized environments (Dev, Hayes 2015). . These specialists number one goal is to give these students the skills to behave appropriately in society, which brings the philosophy of inclusion full circle.
The word “inclusion” has transformed from an educational placement to a mindset one uses in life. To include others means to gain their perspective and interact appropriately. School communities have genuinely adapted the philosophy of inclusion and the research has supported the benefits for both students with disabilities and nondisabled peers.
Students with severe and profound needs require specific evaluations and professional observations to gain the information needed to identify students strengths and needs. Once the deficits are identified, the IEP team can implement services to build upon those deficits and progress towards more difficult goals. The IEP team works rigorously to explicitly instruct skills for students to progress towards their IEP goals. And the specialist (SLP, OT, PT) are continuously in communication with the special education teacher because of co-teaching models and transitions throughout the day. The missing piece to the puzzle is generalizing those skills for students, with severe and profound needs, in the inclusion setting. Team planning periods are either spent with the special education team within the school or the general education teachers in the grade level. Because there is no overlap, there is a gap in communication between the special education team and general education team and curriculum. This leads to meaningless time in the regular education setting for students with profound and severe needs because of the lack of collaboration between the special education and general education plan. If the special education team knows the specific skills to work on for students with severe and profound disabilities and the general education team know the skills taught in the grade level, then why is there not more collaboration amongst teams to implement inclusion properly. This lack of planning and communicating amongst teams results in confusion and less purposeful class time in the inclusion setting for students with severe and profound disabilities.
有严重和深刻需求的学生需要具体的评估和专业的观察，以获得确定学生的优势和需求所需的信息。一旦发现赤字，国际环境政策小组就可以在这些赤字的基础上实施服务，并朝着更困难的目标取得进展。IEP团队严格地为学生提供明确的技能指导，以实现他们的IEP目标。专家(SLP, OT, PT)与特殊教育教师持续沟通，因为他们全天都有合作教学模式和过渡。这个难题的缺失部分是在包容环境中为有严重和深刻需求的学生推广这些技能。小组计划期间要么与学校内的特殊教育小组一起度过，要么与年级内的普通教育教师一起度过。由于没有重叠，特殊教育团队与通识教育团队与课程之间在沟通上存在着差距。
这使得特殊教育和通识教育计划缺乏合作，使得有深刻和严重需求的学生在普通教育环境中度过了毫无意义的时间。如果特殊教育团队知道如何为严重和严重残疾的学生提供特殊技能，而普通教育团队也知道在年级阶段教授的技能，那么为什么团队之间没有更多的合作来正确地实施包容呢?这种团队之间缺乏计划和沟通的情况导致了混乱，在为严重和严重残疾的学生设置的包容性环境中，课堂时间的目的较少。
My change plan to conquer the lack of collaboration and communication for students with severe and profound needs in the general education setting is for action plans to be documented in the IEP of when inclusion times will occur and how the IEP goals will intertwine with the general education curriculum. This action plan will hold general education teachers, special education teachers, therapists, specialists, and teacher assistants accountable to ensure these skills are being worked on in the general education setting. This action plan will also ensure that the special education team and general education team remain on the same page to progress monitor and amend instruction as needed. My two recommendations to build these action plans are to have common planning time and related services in the inclusion setting. The common planning time will allow the special education team and the general education team to collaborate and communicate regularly in order to plan activities and opportunities for the students with severe and profound needs to participate in the general education setting. Allowing related services (speech, OT, PT) to complete their services in the inclusion setting will enhance students with severe and profound disabilities’ skills across settings and support the generalization of skills. Related service providers time in the inclusion setting will also allow them to see what is going on in the general education classroom and gain perspective for those students with severe and profound disabilities in those classrooms. These two recommendations would assist in implementing the action plan and hold professionals accountable for including students with severe and profound disabilities in the regular education classroom.
The two parts of IDEA that span the range of children in early childhood and special education are Parts B and C. The role of families in the referral, assessment, qualification of services, and planning and implementation of goals and objectives varies based on whether a student qualifies under Part B or Part C. Discuss the differences and/or similarities between the two parts of IDEA as it relates to family roles and responsibilities. In addition, discuss how a teacher can promote family engagement in the various roles previously listed for Part B and Part C. Your responses should be based on best practice and you should identify/cite empirical research that supports your responses.
“The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) is a law ensuring services to children with disabilities throughout the nation. IDEA governs how states and public agencies provide early intervention, special education and related services to more than 6.5 million eligible infants, toddlers, children and youth with disabilities. Children and youth (ages 3-21) receive special education and related services under IDEA Part B. The Grants for Infants and Families program (Part C) ensures that appropriate early intervention services are made available to all eligible birth-through-2-year-olds with disabilities and their families.”
The primary differences between Part B and Part C of IDEA is that Part C provides services for children from the age of birth to two years old and their families, and Part C provides services for youths ages 3-21 (Clarkin-Phillips, Carr, 2012). The process of referral, assessment, qualification of services, and planning and implementation of goals and objectivesare all similar processes within Part B and Part C of IDEA (Clarkin-Phillips, Carr, 2012). For both Part B and Part C, the evaluation process is very similar. A parent or guardian must give permission before an evaluation can take place (Garbacz 2017). Once the consent for an evaluation is received, the early intervention center or school has to complete the evaluation within a reasonable amount of time (Rosetti 2017). Part input is a requirement during this stage for both Part B and Part C. Both Part B and Part C explain that all children who receive services have an individualized plan in place. In Part C, this plan is called an Individualized Family Service Plan (IFSP) because it focuses on the needs of the family (Rosetti 2017). In Part B, it is called an Individualized Education Program (IEP) because it changes its focus to the individual needs of the child. Both Part C and B require family participation in all decisions about the child’s individualized plan (Rosetti 2017). However, under Part C, services can be provided to the child’s family in order to help them meet the needs of their child. Under Part B, all services are child-specific (Rosetti 2017).
In Part C and Part B of IDEA, promoting family engagement is a very important aspect for the child and the family. For Part C, service coordinators focus on creating opportunities for and addressing needs of children and their parents together (Carr 2016). Service coordinators also want to build strong relationships with families by validating their concerns, helping to prioritize, and allocating resources for them (Carr 2016). Their relationship should also be built upon receptive communication, responsive actions, and respectful nature when working together (Carr 2016). Protective factors are circumstances or characteristics that can help reduce or eliminate risks families face to the health and wellbeing of their children and family (Future Topics, 2016). Protective factors help parents find and use resources, or strategies to help them effectively cope, even in stressful times (Future Topics, 2016). It is important for service coordinators to play in intregal role in ensuring risk is minimized in families (safety is important above all). Professional development can also be provided for support staff to appropriately engage and collaborate with families (Van Nest, 2017). During Early Intervention, it is important for the service coordinator to foster relationships that are built on trust and for families to see them as a help and not a hindrance. Service coordinators can promote familiy engagement by providing families with resources and skills for them to feel empowered in their roles as teachers, and communicate consistent messages in which ways parents can help their children (Van Nest, 2017). Asking and listening to parents and families, allows service coordinators to gain insight into their needs of their child. It is important for educators to promote family’s effort at helping their child plan for the future and in supporting him or her during the transition process (Van Nest, 2017).
The Iris Peabody Module (Kohler, Paula) stated the following:
“…that other than the students themselves, parents are often the only people who remain part of the transition planning process and their child’s IEP team throughout the school years. Because transition planning includes areas other than academics parents often serve as the bridge between school and community involvement for their child. As such, educators should ensure that families are active participants and that their input is valued (Kohler).”
Therefore it is essential for family involvement in a child’s education from very early ages and throughout their educational career because parents are the consistent thread that runs through all school ages. Parents and families have unique and deep perspectives of their child, or sibling relationship to the student with special needs. This perspective can be vital when planning life long goals and opportunities for a student with special needs. And it is the role of the special education teacher to promote family engagement in the educational journey of their family member with special needs.
因此，家庭从孩子很小的时候开始参与教育，并贯穿他们的教育生涯，这是至关重要的，因为父母是贯穿所有上学年龄的始终如一的线索。父母和家庭对他们的孩子有独特而深刻的看法，或者对有特殊需要的学生有兄弟姐妹关系。在为有特殊需要的学生规划终身目标和机会时，这种观点是至关重要的。特殊教育教师的角色是促进有特殊需要的家庭成员在教育过程中的家庭参与。
According to the U.S. Department of Education and the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Policy on family engagement, family engagement can be defined as:
“Family engagement refers to the systematic inclusion of families in activities and programs that promote children’s development, learning, and wellness, includingin the planning, development, and evaluation of such activities, programs, and systems.”
In promoting family engagement with families of special needs students, special education teachers can use a plethora of strategies and techniques to positively and actively foster family and school partnerships. The first and most important technique is open and active communication between families and schools. The special education teacher can use the four A’s approach to use communication as a vehicle for flourishing family and school partnerships. The four A’s are approach, attitude, atmosphere, and actions (Flammer‐Rivera et al 2015). A teachers approach to family and school partnerships should come from a perspective that both the family and the school care about the growth and development of the student with special needs, therefore they both share responsibilities for that student. And the relationship between the school and family is essential for responsibilities to be understood, and growth and development to happen (Flammer‐Rivera et al 2015). A teachers attitude, or thoughts and beliefs, toward family and school partnerships must be genuine, constructive, and healthy in order incorporate everyone perspective and expertise to strive for the best possible outcome for the student with special needs (Flammer‐Rivera et al 2015. It is important for a special education teacher to create an atmosphere that is open to diversity, welcoming to families, time allocated to getting to know families, and an environment where no generalizations or assumptions are made (Flammer‐Rivera et al 2015). The actions that can be taken by the special education teacher to accomplish this include establishing regular meeting times that are convenient for families, sending twice as many positive messages as negative messages, and regular progress notes to monitor growth and development (and keep families “in touch” with what is going on in school)(Flammer‐Rivera et al 2015). Parent friendly IEP meeting is another great technique when building family and school partnerships. These meeting could include role playing with parents to convey information or examples of their child’s current skills or growth, providing opportunities for educators to learn more about the child’s home environment and allowing the families to learn more about the child’s school environment, inviting parents to their child’s classroom (s) and special events, and always allotting time and attention for parents to express their thoughts, ideas, and concerns in regards to their child’s education (Flammer‐Rivera et al 2015). Home and school notes are another excellent mode of promoting school and family engagement in their child’s education. Home and school notes provide consistent, direct, and purposeful communication between home and school, which directly promotes school and family partnerships. Some examples of home and school notes could include daily behavior report card, school note, or school-home daily report card. Home and school notes could include academic productivity, behavior outside classroom, following classroom rules, homework, peer relationships, responsibility for belongings, and teacher relationships (i.e. respectful)(Flammer‐Rivera et al 2015). The key part of home and school notes is that both families and teacher are taking the time to reflect upon these areas and communicate current situations to the other party, to ensure everyone is on the same page. When communication is open and active, students with special needs will have the stability for growth and development.
As a special education teacher it is very important to promote family engagement so that students with special needs can have consistent and stable environments both in school and at home, which will support their growth and development. Special education teachers need to foster relationships with parents and families that are accepting of them as equal partners, considering family preferences in all aspects of planning, and supporting parents as their child’s best advocates in making decisions (Henderson 2002). If the school and family partnership is strong and healthy, the student with special needs growth and development will happen!
The three career development theories explained in this response are the learning theory, developmental theory, and work adjustment theory. In 1908, Frank Parson established the Vocation Bureau in Boston that fostered career guidance to prepare people for the work force (Sampson 2014). Parson believed in three foundational pillars in the development of careers: first a clear understanding of individual knowledge, interest, and limitations, second is knowledge of employment requirements and conditions, and third is the ability to coordinate the first and second pillar to create successful career guidance (McMahon 2011). Since Frank Parson’s findings in regards to career guidance, there are a plethora of theories and perspectives for career development specifically individual focused theories (Sampson 2014).
John D. Krumboltz developed the learning theory for career development. He believed that career development and decisions were based on social learning. Krumboltz explains that learning takes place through observations as well as through direct experiences (McMahon 2011). And these observations and experiences take place with different people, in different places, at different events overtime, which molds a persons learning, and eventually their career-based decisions (Chen 2003). Krumboltz identified these four main factors that influence career choice: genetic influence, environmental conditions and events, learning experiences, and task approaching skills (Chen 2003). The consequence of these factors, primarily learning experiences, then direct people to evolve beliefs about the nature of careers and their role in life. Role models, such as parents, teachers, coaches, play a significant role in their career choice because of the observational learning experiences that have taken place (Chen 2003). The outcomes of the learning theory in career development for people with disabilities include self-observation generalizations, worldview generalizations, task approach skills, and actions (McMahon 2011). When choosing a particular work place, people with disabilities thrive at tasks they believe are like those performed in that occupation. Work places are attractive when they have observed a valued model be reinforced for activities like those performed by member of that occupation. When valued friends or relatives describe the advantages of a work place to people with disabilities, they observe the positive images and words associated with it (Chen 2003). The interaction between the person with disabilities and their work place is where career counseling plays a vital role. Counselors play a major role in handling all career issues while empowering their people to take action and advocate for themselves (Chen 2003). Counselors steer people in their career by preparing them for changing work tasks and expanding their capabilities and interests. Career counselors assist people with disabilities build knowledge and skills in their work place by learning new skills and exploring other interests, correcting faulty assumptions, learning new skills for coping with new work tasks, and identifying effective strategies to address issues emanating from interacting with others either in the work place or in life (Chen 2003). The disability category that coincides with the learning theory for career development would be people with intellectual disabilities. People with intellectual disabilities are observant of stimuli around them and often learn behaviors from spending time with family and friends. They also meet success when simple tasks are modeled and new skills or tasks are taught based on prior knowledge or experiences. People with intellectual disabilities are able to fluently generate new exemplar (i.e. recently met cousin, new pop singer), switch attention between tasks, and possess personality traits, which lead them to social endeavors. People with intellectual disabilities have the capacity to develop a career path through observations and direct experiences in a field in which they are familiar with, emulate, and could envision themselves doing in life.
The developmental theory of career development revolves around the idea of choosing and adjusting to work as a continuous process (Sampson 2014). Donald Super is widely associated with the developmental approach to career guidance (Super 1957). Super explains career development as a person going through five stages of growth: growth, exploration, establishment, maintenance, and decline (Sampson 2014). And as that person grows through the stages, they develop an idea of themselves, their self-concept. At that point, the person can use the developed idea of himself or herself and match that idea against a picture of the occupation they foresee for themselves (Sampson 2014). The developmental theory has guided career education programs to gradually expose self-concepts and work concepts in curriculums that represent Super’s career development ideals for people with disabilities (Sampson 2014). The growth and exploration stages of the developmental theory are the important aspects when preparing and planning careers for people with disabilities. The growth stage involves developing self-concept and transitioning from play to work orientation (Sampson 2014). The exploration stage aims to develop realistic self-concept and apply vocational preferences (through exploration or role tryouts). Then preferences of career possibilities are gradually narrowed and people with disabilities can make choices about their occupation (Sampson 2014). Career counselors combine a person with disabilities skills with the work force by using an approach called “life stories.” Life stories reflect a person with disabilities development through their perspective (Sampson 2014). This information is used by career counselors to look for themes or common threads that make sense of their past, explain the present, and draw a blueprint for the future (Sampson 2014). A team of career counselors, school and community representatives, and the person with disabilities (and family), plan and develop a program for successful vocational and transition goals (Sampson 2014). This program details the person with disabilities developmental strengths and weakness, along with preferences and choices to find career options that fit the profile of this person (Sampson 2014). The career counselors supervise the implementation of the program, which includes specialized services to bridge the gap between the worker and the work. The career counselors also evaluate the person with disabilities success at the work place to plan and implement necessary improvements (Sampson 2014). Interagency agreements are pivotal to vocational and transition programming implementation. These agreements between schools and communities outline; which services provided by each agency, which people will receive services, when services will be initiated (Athanasou 2010). The interagency agreements hold all parties accountable for proper implementation of the person with disabilities vocational plan (Athanasou 2010). The developmental theory for career development is an effective framework for people with multiple disabilities to adopt when planning and transitioning to the vocational world (Athanasou 2010). People with multiple disabilities have concomitant impairments that cause severe educational needs (IDEA§300.8(c)(7)). Because people with multiple disabilities have unique strengths and needs (because of the variety of impairments a person could have), the developmental theory is an ideal avenue to assess all skills as they pertain to the Super’s stages of development (Athanasou 2010). Once the skills and stages are identified, the team can plan and develop appropriate transition and vocational plans for a person with multiple disabilities. The developmental theory for career development matches perfectly to people with multiple disabilities because of the different levels of impairment along with the different stages of development (Athanasou 2010).
职业发展的发展理论围绕着选择和调整工作作为一个连续的过程(Sampson 2014)。Donald Super被广泛认为是职业指导的发展性方法(Super 1957)。Super解释了一个人的职业发展经历了五个成长阶段:成长、探索、建立、维持和衰退(Sampson 2014)。随着这个人在各个阶段的成长，他们会形成一种自我概念，他们的自我概念。在这一点上，这个人可以使用他或她自己的发展想法，并将这个想法与他们为自己预见的职业图片相匹配(桑普森2014)。发展理论引导职业教育项目在课程中逐渐暴露出代表Super对残疾人职业发展理想的自我概念和工作概念(Sampson 2014)。发展理论的成长和探索阶段是为残障人士准备和规划职业生涯的重要方面。成长阶段包括自我概念的发展和从游戏导向到工作导向的转变(Sampson 2014)。探索阶段的目的是发展现实的自我概念和应用职业偏好(通过探索或角色选拔)。然后偏好的职业可能性逐渐缩小，残疾人可以选择自己的职业(Sampson 2014)。职业顾问使用一种称为“生活故事”的方法，将有残疾技能的人与劳动力结合起来。生活故事通过残疾人的视角来反映残疾人的发展(Sampson 2014)。这些信息被职业顾问用来寻找主题或共同线索，使他们的过去有意义，解释现在，并为未来绘制蓝图(Sampson 2014)。一个由职业顾问、学校和社区代表以及残疾人(和家庭)组成的团队，为成功的职业和转型目标计划和开发项目(Sampson 2014)。
该项目详细介绍了残疾人的发展优势和劣势，以及寻找适合这个人的职业选择的偏好和选择(Sampson 2014)。职业顾问监督计划的实施，其中包括弥合工人和工作之间差距的专门服务。职业顾问还评估残疾人在工作场所的成功，以计划和实施必要的改进(桑普森2014)。机构间协议对执行职业和过渡规划至关重要。这些学校和社区之间的协议概述了;每个机构提供哪些服务，哪些人将接受服务，何时启动服务(Athanasou 2010)。机构间协议要求所有各方对适当实施残疾人职业计划负责(Athanasou, 2010年)。职业发展的发展理论是多重残疾人士在规划和过渡到职业世界时采用的有效框架(Athanasou 2010)。患有多重残疾的人有导致严重教育需求的伴随损伤(IDEA§300.8(c)(7))。由于多重残疾的人有独特的优势和需求(因为一个人可能会有各种各样的缺陷)，发展理论是评估所有技能的理想途径，因为它们属于Super的发展阶段(Athanasou 2010)。一旦确定了技能和阶段，团队就可以为多重残疾人士规划和制定适当的过渡和职业计划。职业发展的发展理论非常适合多重残障者，因为残障程度不同，发展阶段不同(Athanasou 2010)。
The work adjustment theory for career development can be described as “achieving and maintaining correspondence with a work environment…” (Zunker). Hershenson developed the model of work adjustment primarily for people with disabilities and his work later influenced vocational practices (Garske 2014). The work adjustment theory contains three facets; (1) work personality, (2) work competencies, and (3) work goals, which reflects the person’s work congruently with the person’s environment. Work adjustments consist of three elements: task performances, work role behavior, and work satisfaction (Garske 2014). The outcomes of work adjustment theory are active adjustments, environmental (work place) adjustments, reactive adjustments (individual and environmental/work place). These outcomes can occur when there are discrepancies between a person and their work environment (Garske 2014). Active adjustments is when an individual changes their working environment, more specifically the content of the job to reflect their abilities or different reinforcers (Garske 2014). The environmental or work place adjustments aim to change persons abilities through training or change their expectations in the work place (Garske 2014). Reactive adjustments for an individual includes changing their behavior to better serve the environment. Reactive adjustments for environments or work places include changing responsibilities of role to better suit the natural strengths of the individual and/or altering reinforcers to attempt to increase job satisfaction (Garske 2014). For a person with disabilities in the work place, the first step in the work adjustment theory is to identify their abilities and values in order to meet their occupational needs (Garske 2014). Career counselors have access to a plethora of resources and assessments to gather information about a persons abilities and values in life (Harris 2000) Then, initial career choices are planned based on the person’s values and abilities through collaboration of the transition team. The career counselor provides services to teach and support people with disabilities to work through and overcome work adjustment stressors (barriers to satisfaction) (Harris 2000). If dissatisfaction or job termination occurs, career counselors will assist people with disabilities in exploring new or alternative career choice (Harris 2000). A person with a moderate diagnosis of autism would be a prime candidate for the work adjustment theory of career development. A person with autism embodies giftedness that could be very beneficial for a work place environment. Some of these strengths include: detail orientation, logical thinking in decision-making, punctuality, and visual thinker/learner. And they also have their weaknesses, which may include: lack of social or collaboration skills, inability to see big picture, or generalizing concepts. With strong transition supports and close evaluations to ensure deficits skills are progressing in the work place, the work adjustment theory would be an ideal framework to shape a person with autism’s behavior, with reinforcement and satisfaction.
In determining and comparing interagency linkages within the learning theory, developmental theory, and work adjustment theory, it can be concluded that all three theories lacked comprehensive assessments or comprehensive information collection prior to putting their theories into action. The learning theory depended upon observations for information, the developmental theory used a rubric technique but no insight into the individuals life, and the work adjustment theory used job competencies from the real world to measure a person with disabilities strengths and weaknesses in every facet of life. These theories did not particularly reflect seeing people with disabilities in a holistic way, but instead in a way they thought they would fit into their career development theory. The learning theory’s approach to career development through observations and direct experiences is very naturalistic and can be authetic data collection. But the learning theory does not follow a logical plan to adapt to diverse abilities (i.e. people that are blind) and environmental factors (learned behaviors from technology). The learning theory does not access a wide enough range of information about a person with disabilities to decide their career in life. The developmental theory and the stages of development are exceptionally helpful when comparing a person with disabilities and their typical peers. Preferences and choices are embedded in the decision making of a person with disabilities career development however, those preferences and choices could change. And if our goal is for people with disabilities is to maintain jobs, then doing more extensive collections of information is needed in order for these people to feel successful. It seems the work adjustment theory wants a homogeneous work force and those who do not fit the blue print can actively or reactively adjust to the work environment. People with disabilities have strengths and weaknesses, and the work adjustment theory simply harps upon their weaknesses. If more background information was collected or interest inventories were completed, maybe less people would have to adjust and work places would focus on people with disabilities strengths. Overall these theories are helpful and informative in guiding the career development of people with disabilities however I think a more personal holistic approach would better guide their decision-making.
在确定和比较学习理论、发展理论和工作调整理论中的机构间联系时，可以得出结论，这三种理论在将其理论付诸实践之前都缺乏全面的评估或全面的信息收集。学习理论依赖于对信息的观察，发展理论使用了一种红字标记技术，但没有对个人生活的洞察，而工作调整理论则使用了来自现实世界的工作能力来衡量一个残疾人在生活各个方面的优势和劣势。这些理论并没有特别反映以一种整体的方式看待残障人士，而是以一种他们认为适合自己职业发展理论的方式。学习理论通过观察和直接经验对职业发展的方法是非常自然的，可以是真实的数据收集。但是学习理论并没有遵循一个合理的计划来适应不同的能力(例如盲人)和环境因素(从技术中学习行为)。学习理论没有获得足够广泛的关于残疾人的信息，以决定他们的职业生涯。发展理论和发展阶段在比较残疾人和典型同龄人时特别有用。偏好和选择根植于残疾人职业发展的决策中，然而，这些偏好和选择可能会改变。
如果我们的目标是让残障人士保住工作，那么就需要进行更广泛的信息收集，以便让这些人感到成功。工作调整理论似乎想要一个同质的工作队伍，那些不符合蓝图的人可以主动或被动地适应工作环境。残疾人有优点也有缺点，而工作调整理论只是反复强调他们的缺点。如果能收集更多的背景信息或完成更多的兴趣调查，也许需要调整的人会更少，工作场所也会更关注残疾人的优势。总的来说，这些理论在指导残疾人的职业发展方面是有帮助的，但我认为一个更个人的整体方法会更好地指导他们的决策。
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