美国留学生论文代写，美国政府投资项目管理-The United States government investment project management
A, the United States government investment project management of the basic practices
(a) management system
The United States government to a wide range of investment projects, including the education, culture, health, social security, endowment, agriculture, forestry, water conservancy, transportation, housing and the urban planning, the military and defense facilities, government office area, etc. The federal government provides housing and urban construction ministry, the ministry of communications, the yantie river basin begin bureau, the national park service, logistics and administration department for professional management. Such as the federal logistics agency (General Services Administration) responsible for the various government departments to provide office sites and facilities, housing and urban construction ministry responsible for residential construction and urban planning, the ministry of communications is responsible for the transportation of government investment projects management and implementation. For some oversize project, is similar to a Tennessee valley authority such special institute special management. State and local government investment project management system and the federal government is the same, are all made of several government departments of the governments at the corresponding levels of investment project implementation specialized management.
In the federal government investment project implementation process, the end user department and the White House budget office (OMB), congress and the Treasury has to participate in different forms, the end user generally want to participate in design and acceptance project examination and approval, the White House budget office (OMB) to the project budget for examination and approval, the budget must be approved by congress approval to formal execution, the Treasury is responsible for engineering construction fund pays. State and local government investment project implementation procedures and the federal government basically is same.
(2) the decision and implementation procedures
美国留学生论文代写
From the program perspective, the federal and state government investment project management generally has the following features: the decision stage of the project, the project to pass the finance department and parliamentary scrutiny; In the implementation stage of the project, the project executive authority in strict accordance with the provisions of the relevant contract procedures and the project to management.
The logistics agency management and construction of government office area as an example, the project to completion after the management program is: the federal administration departments to logistics agency proposed housing demand plan, logistics agency for project assessment, make sure the government is in the existing public room swap, or to housing units for renovation and expansion of old or new construction. Plan, logistics agency and housing department consultation, according to the government office area of the overall situation for the White House budget office budget management (OMB) audit, OMB budget detail and according to check and report to congress; Congress organization hearing, ask for Congressman advice deciding whether to approve; After congress passed the bill put forward corresponding to OMB, signed by President bill become effective; So far, the project decision-making stage finish, the project construction implementation phase. Need explanation is, in OMB and congress of the budget process, the time is long and repeated many times to adjust. Especially complex projects, budget details must be very clear and appropriately, is it possible to get the approval of the White House and congress. The reason is the federal budget highly transparent public, the public, the media, potential contractors and all kinds of engineering cost to the project budget institutions will assess, if audit department was not very clear budget is how to use, will face the same kind of taxpayer strong pressure.
In the process of construction, the ministry of finance under President bill signed to logistics agency appropriate project construction funds, logistics agency organization design and construction (housing department in design approved), and designated project manager for engineering design, construction management. Project manager to coordinate with the user party, persuade users party does not put forward to improve the budget, the requirements of the standards, and carry out the provisions of the relevant government environmental protection. Project manager under contract with the Contracting Officers), responsible for signing a contract with the contractor, and supervise the project investment, quality, time limit is in accordance with the contract. Completion of the project, logistics agency and housing department after acceptance, hand over housing department use, logistics agency is responsible for later maintenance management. If you need additional in the implementation of the budget, must go through congress, through the legislative amendment program is solved.
(3) supervision mechanism
For the government investment projects of the supervision of the department has three main: the administrative organs of the inspector general (OIG), congress, the office of the general accounting and federal courts. Most us administrative organs internal with one independent inspector general's office called the organization, implementation of this administrative organ procurement audit and and the functions, and report to the department chief executive and work report to congress. OIG audit, under investigation, a lawyer with the internal assessment institution, etc.
Congress audit agency shall have the right to administrative organs of the investment plan of the assessment, and administrative organ of the expenditure is put forward the proposal, and can project to audit. At the same time, always the office as administrative reconsideration organs, processing of the bidder from bidding objections.
The contractor bidding and contract to have objection can appeal court, but in dealing with such problems audit agency has obvious advantages. The court receive each year engineering dispute 50 pieces, and audit agency accept many 1000. The reason is general accounting department of strong, only is high, the staff is recognized as the government procurement experts, so that the processing results more than 96% are implemented.
Two, the United States government investment project management main characteristics
The United States is mature market economic countries, is the world's leading economic power, the government investment projects on a big scale, the project management method and system, system reform has become increasingly perfect after several times, general situation for, the following characteristics are more prominent:
1, legal management. The United States is typical of the country under the rule of law, to government projects for investment management with a series of laws and regulations for the foundation. The most important is the federal procurement policies formulated by the office of the federal procurement rules "(FAR), in addition to the U.S. congress in 1962, the government issued a contract law in the process of honest, the United States congress promulgated in 1984 when a government contract to promote fair competition law, and the various government authorities to formulate rules and regulations of the department. In addition, the United States government investment projects must also be some public legal constraints, such as contract law, enterprises law, small enterprises, etc.
2, contract management. The United States government investment project contract management has several features: one is the contract by the contract management, only the contract shall have the right to sign the contract. The contract is civil servants, according to department personnel how much, to make sure that each administrative departments have one or more of the contract. The contract notions is very strict, in addition to the degree, the most important is to should have engineering, investment and financial aspects of work background and practice experience, the contract has many experts group; 2 it is at a fixed price contract form for the Lord; Three is the contract in addition to conventional content outside, and some provisions of the government department privilege the special terms, such as regulation department reserves the right to think "compliance with government interest" terminate the contract at any time. Changes in the matters, generally USES the friendly consultation and mediation way, in the government and the contractor because the contract modification divergent, the government can send out a unilateral contract revision opinion, the contractor can only be executed to speak.
3, bidding management. In the United States, most government investment projects must be through open tender to choose the contractor, but the law also allows in certain conditions the competitive negotiation and a single source purchase. The bidding mode of the bid assessment and the basis, the lowest price in principle the principle, but the officials to make sure of the contractor's "responsible", the federal government authority granted in contract, check contractor in accordance with the requirements of the project contract ability, among them, not only to investigate the contractor the current technology and financial capacity, and investigation of the contractor's past performance and honesty. Not ZhongBiaoZhe through the legal procedure of the bidding result can disagree, if can prove its better than ZhongBiaoZhe conditions, can request to bidding, or ask the government commits any compensation to the cost of bidding.
4, budget management. The budget management is very strict, law forbids any department budget overruns, except the criminal crime budget is the only send minister or official contract in jail crime. In the department general also shall not exceed the budget projects, this is because the United States is very rigorous editing project budget, from April next year to September budget official reply before they can adjust, all possible factors into consideration very full, there were within 7% of the general. If because of the material price to excessive budget is not enough, so there are two solutions, one kind is change materials, adjusted design, reduce cost, because congress concern was not how materials, but the budget could control; Another area from other projects adjust, but adjustment by more than 5%. Whether a single project budget or 5% above the department must be approved by parliament for adjustment. In the congressional approval before the issuance of the budget implementation by only reply, and shall not overspending. If because of interest rates, currency exchange rates, such as tax policy factor to adjust the budget is not enough, because this is the government behavior, and in the final accounts of the government debt in solid, not so influence period.
5, and risk management. In the United States, the Banks, the insurance company, guarantee and the government itself from different Angle analysis, evaluation, lock project risk. As in the project contract areas, the government usually require the contractor in the contracted project to go through various kinds of insurance, the law also provides, sign over the $100000 the federal government project contract, the contractor must provide a full performance guarantee, in addition, the contractor also need to all kinds of loan bank, at the insurance, guarantees and bank loans in the process, the insurance company, guarantee and Banks from their own interests, will be very carefully review the enterprise contract, performance ability, business records and record credit status, which was to decide whether to give and with what kind of rate loans to the contractor with accept insurance, in this way the contract with the constraint ability the actual ability are in agreement. In addition, the government will also have average owner had no power, such as government could think "compliance with government interest" at any time of the termination of the contract, and right now the contractor can only on its already completed work demand compensation.
6, integrity constraints. And the Chinese government for design, construction and supervision of the contracting units qualification administration is different, the United States for the contractor to do not aptitude, or rating and qualification certificate management, contractor and the owner, bank, guarantee the relationship between contract to define, by the good faith to sustain. This is mainly because in their eyes, qualification itself is not a sure thing, qualification awarded there are likely to be moral risk, and good performance and good faith record more can resist risk. Some owners not only to investigate the contractor's credibility, and also to the project manager for investigation of individual credibility. Good faith are so important, behind the risk system is in play a role. As for the contractor, once the faithless, means losing market and bankruptcy, personal will also lose in society and the career of the base. The credit system is fit into the American social every aspect of life consciousness, individuals, groups, and government are in good faith to sustain the, the relationship between the good faith is also individuals, groups, and government organizations to survive the prerequisites.
Three and perfect our country's government investment project management several enlightenment
The two countries political system, market development degree of different different culture, different, obviously, America's many successful experience and can't directly transplant to China, but contrast between China and the us in the government investment project management differences, still can give us some revelation:
1, strengthen the management of the project. And our country's many "edge decision-making, the design side, edge construction" project management pattern is different, the United States government investment projects attach great importance to the management, preparation is inadequate, the absolute can't go into the construction phase. Government departments in application before the project budget shall be many market research, the potential contractors (design, construction, supervision and material equipment suppliers, etc.) may be involved budget evaluation. Not only that, the project generation before congress must be extensive discussion, all organizations to lobby, general projects need 1-2 years demonstrated, large project sometimes take one hundred and twenty years to come. Although project time long, but the effect is obvious, and that is we can be seen everywhere in the United States decades, hundreds of years of government projects, such as the United States logistics agency, White House chief of staff has nearly years of history still fat. When a project is identified, often after several rounds of detailed design, the purpose, the function, the budget has been very detailed, the only remaining construction unit only with difficulty. Can say, the United States government investment project management on the essence of the previous 70% management, especially design and function orientation.
2, increase the project budget dynamics, hardening budget execution. The project budget overruns and criminal crime sentencing of the same, but still got a very good execution, for many reasons, project budget review must declare fine, is undoubtedly important reasons. The United States government budget is tight, each administrative department funds is very competitive, not only for the purpose of the project can make the White House and congress must convince, budget must also be fine to everyday people (taxpayer) can be verified. In addition, the White House and congress have a batch of very professional civil servants, they shall have the right to request the administrative department according to explain various items budget, shall be returned or project in China, and most of the project construction phase, project budget also is in them. In addition, the project budget audit time is long, the White House and congress have a year of time and administrative department budget negotiations over and over again. Therefore, we suggest that, China should start from the refining project budget preparation, hardening budget implementation Angle, strengthening the project budget review of strength, give full play to the experts function, for the strict lay a scientific basis for the implementation of the budget.
3, vigorously carry out the project guarantee, give full play to the Banks, insurance and guarantee play in control project risk in the role. Engineering guarantee in our country at present and didn't get mass implementation, the biggest risk is the role of engineering in the owner, contractor, guarantee and related financial institutions reasonable share between, at the same time use benefit mechanism, play to guarantee company, Banks, insurance companies, and other financial institutions in the contractor's performance and to identify the good faith, the supervision and the contractor actual performance ability role, and work together to build a speak performance, heavy the integrity of the construction market atmosphere, improve the inferior breaking the contractor and increase the income of the contractor's excellent credit.
2 00 6 years
一、美国政府投资项目管理的基本做法
（一）管理体制
美国政府投资项目涉及面较广，主要包括教育、文化、医疗、社保、养老、农林、水利、交通运输、住宅及城市规划、军事和国防设施、政府办公用房等方面。联邦政府设有住宅与城市建设部、交通部、拓垦局、国家公园管理局、后勤总署等部门实施专业化管理。如联邦后勤总署(General Services Administration) 负责为政府各部门提供办公场所及设施，住宅与城市建设部负责住宅建设与城市规划，交通部负责交通领域政府投资项目的管理与实施。对于一些特大型的工程，则组建类似田纳西流域管理局这样的专门机构进行特殊管理。州及地方政府投资工程的管理体制与联邦政府大体相同，均是由几个政府部门对本级政府投资的工程实施专门管理。
在联邦政府投资工程实施的过程中，最终用户部门以及白宫预算办公室（OMB）、国会以及财政部都要以不同的形式参与，最终用户一般要参与审定设计和验收工程，白宫预算办公室（OMB）要对项目的预算进行审定，预算需经国会批准后方可正式执行，财政部负责工程建设资金支付。州与地方政府投资工程的实施程序与联邦政府基本相同。
（二）决策与实施程序
从程序上来看，美国联邦及州的政府投资项目管理一般具有以下特点：在项目的决策阶段，项目要经过同级财政部门和议会的严格审查；在项目的实施阶段，则由项目的执行机关严格按照规定程序以及有关合同对项目进行管理。
以联邦后勤总署管理和建设的政府办公用房为例，从立项到竣工后的管理程序是：联邦行政部门向后勤总署提出用房需求计划，后勤总署进行立项评估，确定是在现有政府办公用房间调剂，还是对用房单位旧楼进行维修改造、扩建或新建。方案确定后，后勤总署与用房部门协商，根据政府办公用房的总体情况提出预算报白宫预算管理办公室（OMB）审核，OMB对预算明细及依据进行检查并上报国会；国会组织听证会，征求国会议员意见后决定是否批准；国会通过后提出相应的法案转交OMB，经总统签字后法案生效；至此，项目决策阶段完成，项目进入建设实施阶段。需要说明的是，在OMB和国会审议预算的过程中，时间相当漫长并且要进行多次调整反复。尤其是复杂项目，预算明细必须非常清楚并依据充分，才可能得到白宫与国会的批准。原因是联邦预算高度透明公开，公众、媒体、潜在的承包商与各种工程造价机构都会对项目预算进行评估，如果审核部门不很清楚预算是如何使用，同样会面临纳税人的强大压力。
在工程建设过程中，财政部根据总统签字法案向后勤总署拨付工程建设资金，后勤总署组织设计和施工(用房部门参与设计审定)，并指定工程经理，对工程的设计、施工进行管理。工程经理要与用户方进行协调，说服用户方不提出追加预算、提高标准等方面的要求，并执行政府有关环保的规定。工程经理之下设有合同官(Contracting Officers)，负责与承包商签订合同，并监督工程的投资、质量、工期是否符合合同要求。工程完工时，后勤总署与用房部门共同验收后，移交用房部门使用，后勤总署则负责后期维修管理。在执行中如需追加预算，必须经过国会，通过立法修正案程序解决。
（三）监督机制
对政府投资项目实施监督的部门主要有三个：政府行政机关的总检察长办公室（OIG)、国会的审计总署和联邦法院。美国多数行政机关内部都设有一个独立的名为总检察长办公室的机构，执行对本行政机关项目采购的审计和调查职能，并向部门长官和国会报告工作。OIG下设审计、调查、律师与内部评估等机构。
国会审计总署有权对行政机关的投资计划进行评估，就行政机关的支出提出建议，并可以对项目进行审计。同时，总审计署办公室可以作为行政复议机关，处理来自投标人的投标异议。
承包商对投标及合同存在异议还可以上诉法庭，不过在处理此类问题时审计总署具有明显优势。法庭每年接受工程纠纷50件，而审计总署接受1000多件。原因是审计总署属强势部门，公信度高，工作人员是公认的政府采购专家，以致处理结果96％以上都得到执行。
二、美国政府投资项目管理的主要特点
美国是成熟的市场经济国家，又是世界头号经济强国，政府投资项目规模很大，项目管理的方法、制度、体制经过多次改革变得日益完善，概况来说，以下几个特点较为突出：
1、法律管理。美国是典型的法治国家，对政府投资工程项目的管理以一系列法律法规为基础。其中最主要的是美国联邦采购政策办公室制定的《联邦采购规章》（FAR），另外还有美国国会1962年颁布的订立政府合同过程中的诚实法律，美国国会1984年颁布的订立政府合同时促进公平竞争的法律，以及各个政府机构制定的部门规章制度。此外，美国政府投资工程还必须受一些公共法律约束，如合同法、企业法、小企业法等。
2、合同管理。美国政府投资项目的合同管理有几个特点：一是合同由合同官管理，只有合同官有权签订合同。合同官都是公务员，依据部门人员多少，确定每个行政部门有一个或多个合同官。合同官选拨非常严格，除学历外，最重要的是要有工程、投资、金融方面的工作背景与实践经验，合同官下设很多专家小组；二是合同以固定价格形式为主；三是合同除了常规内容外，还有一些规定政府部门特权的特殊条款，如规定部门有权在认为“符合政府利益”的任何时间中止合同。在发生变更事项时，一般采用友好协商和调解的方式解决，在政府与承包商由于合同修改发生分歧时，政府可以发出一个单方面的合同修改意见，承包商只能先执行后申辩。
3、 招投标管理。在美国，绝大多数政府投资工程都必须通过公开招标来选择承包商，但法律上也允许在一定条件下采用竞争性谈判和单一来源采购方式。采用招投标方式下的评标及中标依据，原则上实行最低价格中标原则，但合同官员要确认承包商的“负责任性”，联邦政府机关在授予合同时，要检查承包商按照项目的要求执行合同能力，其中，不仅要考察承包商目前的技术和财务能力，还要考察承包商的以往业绩和诚信。未中标者通过法定程序可对投标结果提出异议，如果能够证明其条件优于中标者，可要求重新招投标，或要求政府赔偿其因准备投标而支出的费用。
4、预算管理。美国预算管理非常严格，法律严禁任何部门预算超支，超预算是除刑事犯罪外唯一送部长或合同官进监狱的罪过。部门内项目一般也不得超过预算，这是因为美国项目预算编审很严谨，从上年4月到下年9月预算批复前都可以调整，各种可能的因素都考虑得非常充分，还留有7％以内的预备费。如因材料涨价过大而导致预算不够，那么有两种解决办法，一种是更换材料，调整设计，降低成本，因国会关注的不是材料如何，而是预算能否控制；另一种是从部内其它项目调整，但调整幅度不能超过5%。无论是单个项目超预算还是5%以上部门内部调整都必须报国会批准。在国会批准下达之前只能按原批复预算执行，不得超支。如因利率、汇率、税制等政策性因素调整而导致的预算不够，因这是政府行为，而在决算中政府据实认账，不会因此影响工期。
5、风险管理。在美国，银行、保险公司、担保公司以及政府自身从各个不同的角度分析、评估、锁定项目风险。如在工程承包领域，政府业主通常要求承包商在承包工程时办理各种保险，法律还规定，签订10万美元以上的联邦政府工程合同时，承包商必须提供全额的履约担保，另外，承包商也需要银行的各种贷款，在办理保险、担保和银行贷款的过程中，保险公司、担保公司和银行从自身利益出发，会很慎重地审查企业的承包能力、履约记录、营业记录和资信状况，据以决定是否给予以及以什么样的费率给予承包商贷款与承保，通过这种方式约束承包商的承包能力与其实际能力相一致。此外，政府还享有一般业主所没有的权力，如政府可以在认为“符合政府利益”的任何时候终止合同，而此时承包商只能就其已完成的工作要求补偿。
6、 诚信约束。与我国政府对设计、施工、监理等承包单位实行资质管理不同，美国对承包商不进行资质认定，也不进行评级和资格证书管理，承包商与业主、银行、担保公司的关系以合同来界定，以诚信来维系。这主要是因为在他们看来，资格本身是一种不确定的东西，资格授予也可能存在道德风险，而良好的业绩和诚信记录更能抵御风险。有些业主不仅要考察承包商的诚信，同时还要考察承担该项目的项目经理个人的诚信。诚信之所以如此重要，其背后是风险机制在发挥作用。对承包商而言，一旦失信，就意味着丧失市场和破产，个人亦会失去在社会和事业上的立足之本。这种诚信制度是融入美国社会生活方方面面的一种意识，个人、团体、政府都以诚信来维系之间的关系，诚信也是个人、团体、政府组织得以生存的先决条件。
三、完善我国政府投资项目管理的几点启示
中美两国政治制度不同、市场发育程度不同、文化不同，显然，美国的许多成功经验并不能直接移植到中国，但对比中美在政府投资项目管理上的差异，依然能给我们些许启示：
1、加强项目前期管理。与我国众多“边决策、边设计、边施工”的项目管理模式不同，美国政府投资项目非常重视前期管理，前期准备不充分，绝对不能进入施工阶段。政府部门在申请项目预算前，须进行许多市场调研，潜在的承包商（设计、施工、监理及材料设备供货商等）都可以参与进来进行预算评估。不仅如此，项目生成前还必须在国会进行广泛的讨论，各个组织都在进行游说，一般的项目需要1-2年论证，大型项目有时需要一二十年才能出台。立项时间虽长，但效果很明显，那就是我们在美国随处可见几十年、上百年的政府工程，如美国后勤总署、白宫办公厅都有近百年的历史依然岿然不动。项目确定时，往往经过了多轮细化设计，目的、功能、预算都已经非常详细了，余下只需施工单位照猫画虎而已。可以说，美国政府投资项目管理70％的要义集中在前期管理，尤其是设计和功能定位。
2、加大项目预算审核力度，硬化预算执行。美国项目预算超支与刑事犯罪同等量刑，但依然得到了很好的执行，原因很多，项目预算申报细、审核准无疑是重要原因。美国政府预算紧张，各个行政部门经费竞争非常激烈，不仅申请项目美国留学生论文代写的目的必须能令白宫与国会信服，预算也必须细到非专业人士（纳税人）都可以查证。此外，白宫和国会都有一批非常专业的公务员，他们有权要求行政部门解释清楚各个子项预算依据，否则项目予以退回，而我国大部分项目进入施工阶段，项目预算还在暂定之中。另外，美国项目预算审核时间长，白宫和国会有一年的时间与行政部门就预算反复交涉。为此，我们建议，我国应从细化项目预算编制、硬化预算执行的角度出发，加强项目预算审核的力度，充分发挥专家作用，为严格预算执行打下科学基础。
3、大力推行工程担保，充分发挥发挥银行、保险及担保公司在控制项目风险中的作用。工程担保目前在我国并没有得到大规模推行，其最大的作用是将工程风险在业主、承包商、担保公司及相关金融机构间合理分摊，同时利用利益机制，发挥担保公司、银行、保险公司等金融机构在甄别承包商的业绩和诚信、监督承包商实际履约能力等方面的作用，共同营造一个讲业绩、重诚信的建筑市场氛围，提高低劣承包商的失信成本，增加优秀承包商的守信收益。
二00六年