中西方文化差异英文论文Abstract:
Unlike our ancient ancestors who lived in small communities and had little contact with the outside world, there exists an increasing contact and exchange among different cultures in our modern world for the globalization .Greetings, which usually happen before starting a conversation, are very important and may shape the image of the speaker. So, it’s necessary for us to learn to use the appropriate ways to greet others. The purpose of this essay is to help people from different cultures background to know more about how to greet others in intercultural communication.
Introduction
Nowadays, the whole world is in the process of globalization, appropriate words and deeds are playing a decisive role in achieving successful communication. To be polite is an important part of communication，especially when we talk to others. It’s instinctive to most people during communicating with others in the same culture to use their own language. But when speaking another language, especially in a different culture which you know not that much, it’s important for one to be aware of the different meanings of the same words.
Because of cultural difference, we always find it difficult for people to understand each other, even hurt other in intercultural communication. Sometimes, words that mean to show politeness can make people feel very embarrassed, courteous behaviors can also be misunderstood as absurd and vulgar. Therefore, studying cultural differences and the correct intercultural communication manners is essential.
The intercultural communication is not only important in people’s communication, but also essential in other area. Like in the business field, it important to find out the foreign client’s likes dislikes and expectations; avoid being offence to their visitor through ignorance or assumptions.” (Angelena Boden 2006: 11-13). From this quotation, we can find the importance of across-communication. We mostly communicate by speaking, so learn to be polite in intercultural communication is very important.
But what is culture and what is intercultural communication?
Definitions of culture
According to Samovar and Porter (1994), culture refers to the cumulative deposit of knowledge, experience, beliefs, values, attitudes, meanings, hierarchies, religion, notions of time, roles, spatial relations, concepts of the universe, and material objects and possessions acquired by a group of people in the course of generations through individual and group striving.
Gudykunst and Kim (1992) see culture as the systems of knowledge shared by a relatively large group of people.
Intercultural communication
Intercultural communication (also frequently referred to as Cross-cultural communication) is a field of study that looks at how people from differing cultural backgrounds endeavors to communicate. The term intercultural communication was first used by Edward T.Hall in 1959. Hall was one of the first researchers to differentiate cultures based on how communications are sent and received. Hall defined intercultural communication as “communication between persons of different cultures”. Intercultural communication includes not only linguistic elements (grammar, syntax, pronunciation) but also international competence (turn taking, negotiating, opening or closing a conversation), as well as the social cultural aspects of speakers.
There’s an interesting and standard example, a Chinese turns out to be very modest when he is praised by an American and he responds ‘oh no , I am really over praised’, that will surely make the American feel puzzled even annoyed because he may feel that the Chinese man is refusing to accepted his praise. This is the misunderstanding due to failure in the intercultural communication. If the Chinese man has the knowledge of the west culture, he must answer with ‘thank you’ without hesitation.
The purpose of greeting in social interactions
Greeting is always the first part of conversations and it helps us to create the topic and make both sides feel better. A good greeting can be a beginning of one day’s happy life or a successful business case. So it’s very important to learn the appropriate ways of greeting not only in our own culture but also in the intercultural communication.
The purpose of a greeting won't be understood in a literal translation of its words. More often than not, greetings phrased as questions are rhetorical. The real purpose of the greeting is to make contact, for the purpose of establishing a shared atmosphere for the continuance or inhibition of further exchange.
As such, greetings and the set of typical replies are in actuality a dance; it's a two-way communication that involves much more information than merely the words spoken. Inflection, eye contact, and other body language impart valuable cues as to the emotional mindset and level of comfort of both participants in the exchange; the way the greeting is delivered can suggest attitudes that run the gamut from flirtation to hostility.
The differences of greetings
Here are some typical western greetings we can easily find in our daily life:
1. Hi, Hello.
2. How are you?
3. What's up?
4. How's it going?
Each of these greetings has a set of common responses, which tend to be neutral:
1. Fine
2. Not much.
3. Pretty good.
4. OK
It seems like there is an implicit protocol underlying greetings. The fact that greetings such as "How are you?" may either be answered literally in a common conversation, or with a similar greeting you meet someone in the street, such as "What's up?", reflects the implicit choices made by both participants whether or not to continue the exchange. Furthermore, replies to greetings are neutral because, otherwise, the reply itself would have to be taken as an attempt to communicate further. For example, if the answer to the question, "How are you?" is "I feel good!", then this reply maybe shows the second person begs the first person to explore the conversation further. Neutral responses are important because they allow both people to probe whether continued conversation is desired on both sides.
The importance of greetings is reflected even in our early years of studying English or other language. It’s common that greetings often comes the first lesson in those language classes or tutorial even for our own language. Communication is difficult without the grasp and execution of appropriate greetings and responses. Often, humans become annoyed or agitated if either a person fails to reply to a greeting, or communication begins without a greeting. Also difficult is when a person offers inappropriate responses or fails to take cues that no further conversation is desired; these all reflect a failure to negotiate the implied rules of the greeting protocol.
The importance of greeting
It is usual for two individuals to greet when they meet each other. It is not only a sign of recognize each other but also shows the happiness and politeness at each other's sight. Social transactions necessitate this initial conviviality, and culture crystallizes the form it takes. It is well known that greetings differ from country to country, and from culture to culture.
In our daily life, no matter in which culture, greeting is an important way to show politeness whenever one meets others and wherever he or she is. However, different cultures have different influences on greetings. We should always be sure to use the appropriate greeting for the situation. For example, in English, we use the more formal "good morning", "good afternoon" or "good evening" to greet clients in the workplace, but the informal "hello" to greet colleagues, friends, and family. The cultures of various places are obviously different, and the languages of those places likewise reflect this. For example, the Japanese greeting for 'good morning' can be used before noon.
If you visit another English-speaking country, do not imitate their accents or use their slang, as this could lead you to appear rude or presumptuous. Misusing and/or mispronouncing can make you appear inept.
Difference in culture
Cultural differences distinguish societies from one to another. In today's world of globalization, the world is certainly becoming smaller and people of various cultures are able to communicate freely. Nowadays there are different ways to express thoughts, ideas which can span across cultures through different forms of media. There are many who would love to disregard the existence of cultural differences due to the advancement in science and technology.
All cultures are known to have a set of beliefs and that’s exactly the thing defines the code of conduct and values for that particular culture. People in all over the world share the same thing that living together with those who share the same culture in a same society. This can be traced back to the ancient time and probably the reason why we have village, town or even country. After thousands of years, we are still doing the same thing today.
The history of a particular region or country can be another important contributor to the cultural difference. History certainly shapes the moods and opinions of people living in that specific country. When a large group of people observe a set of traditions, social norms and values, it gives rise to culture. One should also spare a thought that in shaping a set of myths which gave rise to cultural differences.
Not all cultures in the world are going to become like ours .But nowadays most people in the world just can’t help to think that others ought to try to imitate and adopt their culture .This is true, no matter who “we” and “they” are. But the truth is, sometimes people even know little about their own culture. In this respect, how can we expect they really understand the differences of cross-culture.
Different Greetings in China, England and America
Chinese Greeting
There is an old Chinese saying “A kind word could warm one for three winters, a bad attitude would make one cold even in hot summer.” Greeting in Chinese is very important, just as the other countries in the world.
Here’s a standard example, an American studying in China had an appointment at noon. As he was getting on his bicycle, a Chinese friend passed by. "Chi Le Ma” (Have you eaten yet?) The young Chinese asked. This is, of course, a common Chinese greeting around meal time and the American merely nodded with a smile, waved goodbye and went off. He realized that his friend’s remark was nothing more than a Chinese way of saying hello or hi. If the greeting had been translated into English like “Have you eaten yet?” Or “Have you had your lunch?” It would sound very unusual.
To Americans, this greeting might mean this: "I haven't either. Come on, let’s go together and get something to eat." or "If you haven’t, I was just going to invite you to my place." In other words, it could indicate an invitation to a meal. Actually, to another foreign student who had not been long in China once complained in broken Chinese that “why you Chinese always ask me whether I have eaten or not, I got that money.” To his way of thinking, people were concerned that he was not capable to get his meals properly because of lack of money. Clearly, he was offended.
To almost every country, the greeting topics should be carefully chosen when communicating. It is interesting that people from different countries choose a topic consciously or randomly when greeting. For example the Chinese people start with “Where are you going?” or “Have you eaten yet?” .In fact, choosing a wrong topic when communicate may cause annoyance. For instance, the Chinese students usually ask their foreign friends a serious of questions out of curiosity when they first meet.
Like --- Where are you from?
--- How old are you?
---- Are you married?
What’s more, they even ask some more private questions
Like --- How much do you earn each month?
---How much is your watch?
---Where did you buy your beautiful dress?
These questions are commonly asked among Chinese people, while seldom referred to among westerners. They consider that such questions are impolite and don’t want to be asked. As the Chinese choose the wrong topics, the westerners will usually refuse to answer.
Chinese culture is always regarded as representatives of the Eastern countries. Chinese culture, which is influenced by Confucianism, underlines human sociality and collectivity. The primary characteristic of Chinese politeness principle is “to denigrate self and to respect others”;
In Chinese culture, modesty is traditional virtue for a good while. In modern society, traditional Chinese culture is part of the heritage of history which can be traced back before century. Confucius' ideology, Buddhism and Taoism are three main branches of Chinese culture. They are so powerful that the modern Chinese culture is still being influenced by them. (http://www.simple-chinese.com/chinese-culture/)
The basic moral culture in China is respect the elderly and take care of the youth, be filial to parents, help and supports the poor, lay stress on etiquettes. These things are still very important in Chinese greeting. So when communicating with others, we always gives others a high praise to show our respect and greeting. But to ourselves, we always use self-criticism to show modest and polite
Chinese like to add different appellation before others family name in order to show the respect and wish others may feel good and willing to communicate or cooperate with pleasure.
For the sainted people, we call them gentleman or grand old man. To those loftily people, we call them director general, manager or president. What’s more, Chinese always put titles before others’ family names according to their career, like Professor Wang, Lawyer Chen, Manager Luo, or Doctor Li.
High context culture is also one reason for Chinese kind of greeting and it refers to societies or group while people have close connection over a long period of time. (Beer 1995)
High context are those in which people have extensive information networks among family, friends, colleagues are involved in close personal relationship.
Collectivism
This is also an important factor that influence the Chinese greeting a lot. It holds that the group, the nation, the community, the proletarian, the race, is the primary unit of reality and the ultimate standard of value. (Stata 1992) In China, the biggest Communist country, collectivism affected several generations.
In those countries which value collectivism, to maintaining harmony within groups is obtained at all cost. People work hard to keep harmony in family, work place, city, race or even country in those countries like China. Meantime, in this kind of countries, face is another very important thing, and it must be preserved at all cost.
We always find that the English people usually start a conversation by asking about the weather like “Beautiful weather, isn’t it?” The Americans are simpler with a word of “Hello” or “hi”. Do people from all western countries greet likely the same?
America
Firm handshakes should last 3-5 seconds. Good eye contact shows interest, sincerity and confidence. When greeting multiple people, make eye contact with the person whose hand you are shaking, and then go on to the next. In rural areas you may be greeted with a “hello” or “hi” rather than a handshake. They are not used to stand too close.
United Kingdom
A hand shake is the most common form of greeting for both men and women .when people are already acquainted, verbal greetings are used like “Beautiful weather, isn’t it?”. Personal space is important and people can feel uncomfortable if someone stands too close to them .Touching is generally avoided.
Australia
Like the other two countries, handshake is the preferred greeting in Australia. Men refrain from being too physically demonstrative with women. When speaking to an Australian, keep an arm’s length distance from the person and greet like “hello”, “hi” or “how are you”. Maintaining personal space is important in this culture, and eye contact should be maintained as well. (http://www.businessoftouch.com)
Greeting in English are generally such verbal routines as: “Good morning”; “Hi”; “Hello”; “How are you?” “How are things with you?” “How’s everything?” “How are you getting on?” “What a lovely day!” and so on. It seems people in English speaking countries are likely to simply greet the person with a common greeting like those we mention before. But if people want to appear friendlier, they can say, “Hello. Have a nice dinner!” or “Hello. You’re doing a good job!”
In the English-speaking countries, individualism is the center of social life. People pursue individual rights and freedom, which are holy and inviolable. English politeness principle has six pairs of “maximize” and “minimize”. (According to Geoffrey Leech, there is a politeness principle with conversational maxims similar to those formulated by Paul Grice. He lists six maxims: tact, generosity, approbation, modesty, agreement, and sympathy. The first and second form a pair, as the same to the third and the fourth. These maxims vary from culture to culture: what may be considered polite in one culture may be strange or downright rude in another.) The most obvious difference between the two kinds of politeness principle is that English does not have the address maxim. Influenced by Christianity, westerners stress equality and egoism, and do not underline the varied status and position so much as the Chinese do.
The greeting topic is randomly chosen in western countries, but England is exception. In Britain’s greeting style .For their geography position, they have plenty of rain and changing weather. They don’t even know in the next five minutes it would rain or not. Therefore it is natural for them to start a conversation with “Beautiful weather, isn’t it?” or “What’s the weather like today?”
In most of the English speaking countries, people care little about their social positions and pursue their personal freedom by calling others’ names directly. What’s more, the difference in values also affects their topics. Greeting contain the praise about old but vigorous for the old are very rich in Chinese, while in English-speaking countries, "old" is a taboo in the eyes of people, so there are few such congratulations in English. Appreciation in Chinese is not used as frequently as that in English.
What makes western kind of greeting so different from eastern one? Value can be the most important thing to affect greeting style. Let’s take America for an example. In my opinion, there are two main things in the U.S. value affect the American kind of greeting: equality and informality.
Equality:
中西方文化差异论文U.S. Americans uphold the ideal that everyone “is created equal” and has the same rights. This includes women as well as men of all ethnic and cultural groups living in the U.S. There are even laws that protect this “right to equality” in its various forms. The general lack of deference to people in authority is one example of equality. Titles, such as “sir” and “madam” are seldom used. Managers, directors, presidents and even university instructors are often addressed by their first or given name.
Informality:
The U.S. American lifestyle is generally casual. You will see students going to class in shorts and t-shirts. Male instructors seldom wear a tie and some may even wear blue jeans. Female instructors often wear slacks along with comfortable walking shoes.
Greetings and farewells are usually short, informal and friendly. Students may greet each other with “hi”, “how are you?” And “what’s up?” The farewell can be as brief as: “See you”, “Take it easy” or, “come by some time” (although they generally don’t really mean it). Friendships are also casual, as Americans seem to easily develop and end friendships.
Perhaps you are comparing American salutations to British ones. Every culture is different. American greetings do tend to be less formal. The reason for this is hard to establish. Perhaps it has something to do with the American Revolution! In the 1700’s the Americans broke away from British rule. They began to form their own customs and culture. A change in customary greetings would have arisen from this.