Business Essay范文-商业周期的四个阶段。本文是一篇留学生Business Essay写作范文，主要内容是讲述商业周期是指经济活动的周期性但不规则的上下波动，以实际GDP和其他宏观经济变量的波动来衡量。
商业周期图（或贸易周期）：
商业周期从低谷（低点）开始，经过复苏阶段，然后是扩张期（高点）和繁荣期。在达到峰值点之后，是衰退的衰退阶段，随后是萧条。同样，商业周期也在经历起伏。以下就是这篇Business Essay范文的具体内容，供参考。
Q 1 Define the term Business Cycle and also explain the phases of business or trade cycle in brief? 定义术语“商业周期”，并简要解释商业或贸易周期的各个阶段？
Ans: The business cycle is the periodic but irregular up-and-down movements in economic activity, measured by fluctuations in real GDP and other macroeconomic variables.Diagram of Business Cycle (or Trade Cycle) :-
The business cycle starts from a trough (lower point) and passes through a recovery phase followed by a period of expansion (upper turning point) and prosperity. After the peak point is reached there is a declining phase of recession followed by a depression. Again the business cycle continues similarly with ups and downs.
Explanation of Four Phases of Business Cycle 商业周期的四个阶段说明
1. Prosperity Phase : Expansion or Boom or Upswing of economy.When there is an expansion of output, income, employment, prices and profits, there is also a rise in the standard of living. This period is termed as Prosperity phase.The features of prosperity are :- High level of output and trade, High level of effective demand, High level of income and employment, Rising interest rates, Inflation, Large expansion of bank credit, Overall business optimism.
繁荣阶段：经济的扩张或繁荣或上升。当产量、收入、就业、价格和利润扩张时，生活水平也会上升。这一时期被称为繁荣阶段。繁荣的特征是：高水平的产出和贸易，高水平的有效需求，高水平收入和就业，利率上升，通货膨胀，银行信贷的大幅扩张，整体商业乐观。
2. Recession Phase: from prosperity to recession (upper turning point).
衰退阶段：从繁荣到衰退（上拐点）
The turning point from prosperity to depression is termed as Recession Phase.从繁荣到萧条的转折点被称为衰退阶段。
During a recession period, the economic activities slow down. When demand starts falling, the overproduction and future investment plans are also given up. There is a steady decline in the output, income, employment, prices and profits. The businessmen lose confidence and become pessimistic (Negative). It reduces investment. The banks and the people try to get greater liquidity, so credit also contracts. Expansion of business stops, stock market falls. Orders are cancelled and people start losing their jobs. The increase in unemployment causes a sharp decline in income and aggregate demand. Generally, recession lasts for a short period.
在经济衰退时期，经济活动会放缓。当需求开始下降时，过剩的生产和未来的投资计划也会被放弃。产量、收入、就业、价格和利润都在稳步下降。商人失去信心，变得悲观（消极）。它减少了投资。银行和人民试图获得更大的流动性，因此信贷也会收缩。业务扩张停止，股市下跌。订单被取消，人们开始失业。失业率的上升导致收入和总需求的急剧下降。一般来说，经济衰退持续的时间很短。
3. Depression Phase : Contraction or Downswing of economy.When there is a continuous decrease of output, income, employment, prices and profits, there is a fall in the standard of living and depression sets in.
萧条阶段：经济收缩或衰退。当产出、收入、就业、价格和利润持续下降时，生活水平就会下降，萧条就开始了。
The features of depression are :- Fall in volume of output and trade, Fall in income and rise in unemployment,Decline in consumption and demand, Fall in interest rate, Deflation, Contraction of bank credit, Overall business pessimism.In depression, there is under-utilization of resources and fall in GNP (Gross National Product). The aggregate economic activity is at the lowest, causing a decline in prices and profits until the economy reaches its Trough (low point).
萧条的特征是：产出和贸易量下降，收入下降，失业率上升，消费和需求下降，利率下降，通货紧缩，银行信贷紧缩，整体商业悲观。在萧条中，资源利用不足，国民生产总值下降。总经济活动处于最低水平，导致价格和利润下降，直到经济达到低谷（低点）。
4. Recovery Phase : from depression to prosperity (lower turning Point).
复苏阶段：从萧条到繁荣（转折点较低）。
The turning point from depression to expansion is termed as Recovery or Revival Phase.During the period of revival or recovery, there are expansions and rise in economic activities. When demand starts rising, production increases and this causes an increase in investment. There is a steady rise in output, income, employment, prices and profits. The businessmen gain confidence and become optimistic (Positive). This increases investments. The stimulation of investment brings about the revival or recovery of the economy.Thus we see that, during the expansionary or prosperity phase, there is inflation and during the contraction or depression phase, there is a deflation.
从萧条到扩张的转折点被称为复苏或复兴阶段。在复苏或复苏期间，经济活动有扩张和上升。当需求开始上升时，产量就会增加，这就导致了投资的增加。产出、收入、就业、价格和利润都在稳步上升。商人获得了信心并变得乐观（积极）。这增加了投资。投资的刺激带来了经济的复苏。因此，我们看到，在扩张或繁荣阶段，会出现通货膨胀，在收缩或萧条阶段，会发生通货紧缩。
Q2. Monopoly is the situation there exists a single control over the market producing a commodity having no substitutes with no possibilities for anyone to enter the industry to compete. In that situation, they will not charge a uniform price for all the customers in the market and also the pricing policy followed in that situation?垄断是指对生产商品的市场实行单一控制，没有替代品，任何人都不可能进入该行业竞争。在这种情况下，他们不会对市场上的所有客户收取统一的价格，也不会对这种情况下遵循的定价政策收费？
Ans: A market structure characterized by a single seller, selling a unique product in the market. In a monopoly market, the seller faces no competition, as he is the sole seller of goods with no close substitute.In a monopoly market, factors like government license, ownership of resources, copyright and patent and high starting cost make an entity a single seller of goods. All these factors restrict the entry of other sellers in the market. Monopolies also possess some information that is not known to other sellers.
以单一卖家为特征的市场结构，在市场上销售独特的产品。在垄断市场中，卖方没有竞争，因为他是唯一的货物卖方，没有紧密的替代品。在垄断市场上，政府许可、资源所有权、版权和专利以及高昂的启动成本等因素使一个实体成为单一的货物卖方。所有这些因素都限制了其他卖家进入市场。垄断企业还拥有一些其他卖家不知道的信息。
Characteristics of monopoly: Only one single seller in the market, There is no competition, There are many buyers in the market, The firm enjoys abnormal profits, The seller controls the prices in that particular product or service and is the price maker, Consumers don’t have perfect information, There are barriers to entry. These barriers many be natural or artificial, The product does not have close substitutes.
垄断的特点：市场上只有一个卖家，没有竞争，市场上有很多买家，公司享有异常利润，卖家控制着特定产品或服务的价格，是价格制定者，消费者没有完美的信息，存在进入壁垒。这些障碍很多是自然的或人为的，产品没有接近的替代品。
Advantages of monopoly 垄断优势=
Monopoly avoids duplication and hence wastage of resources.垄断可以避免重复，从而避免资源浪费。
Due to the fact that monopolies make lot of profits, it can be used for research and development and to maintain their status as a monopoly.由于垄断企业可以获得大量利润，因此可以用于研究和开发，并保持其垄断地位。
Monopolies may use price discrimination which benefits the economically weaker sections of the society. Monopolies can afford to invest in latest technology and machinery in order to be efficient and to avoid competition.垄断可能会利用价格歧视，使社会中经济弱势群体受益。垄断企业可以对最新技术和机械进行投资，以提高效率并避免竞争。
Disadvantages of monopoly 垄断的劣势
Poor level of service, No consumer sovereignty, Consumers may be charged high prices for low quality of goods and services, Lack of competition may lead to low quality and out dated goods and services.服务水平低，没有消费者主权，消费者可能因商品和服务质量低而被收取高昂的价格，缺乏竞争可能导致商品和服务的质量低和过时。
Price Discrimination : It is the ability to charge different prices to different individual.价格歧视：这是一种向不同的个人收取不同价格的能力。
Need for price discrimination: increase output and profit. Buying pattern of individuals will be different. Increase the economic welfare.价格歧视的必要性：增加产量和利润。个人的购买模式会有所不同。增加经济福利。
Eg: Air tickets, movie tickets , discount coupons etc.例如：机票、电影票、折扣券等。
multiple types of price discrimination:多种类型的价格歧视：
First-degree price discrimination is an attempt by the seller to leave the price unannounced in advance and charge each customer the highest price they would be willing to pay for the purchase.
一级价格歧视是指卖方试图事先不宣布价格，并向每位客户收取他们愿意支付的最高价格。
A business may benefit by offering different prices to those who purchase in larger volumes because either they can increase their profit with the increased volume sales or their costs per unit decrease when items are purchased in volume. Businesses can create alternative pricing methods that distinguish high-volume buyers from low-volume buyers. This is second-degree price discrimination.
企业可以通过向大量购买的人提供不同的价格而受益，因为他们可以随着销量的增加而增加利润，也可以在批量购买商品时降低单位成本。企业可以创建可供选择的定价方法，将大量买家与少量买家区分开来。这是二级价格歧视。
Third-degree price discrimination is differential pricing to different groups of customers. One justification for this practice is that producing goods and services for sale to one identifiable group of customers is less than the cost of sales to another group of customers. For example, a publisher of music or books may be able to sell a music album or a book in electronic form for less cost than a physical form like a compact disc or printed text.
三级价格歧视是对不同客户群体的差别定价。这种做法的一个理由是，生产用于销售给一组可识别客户的商品和服务的成本低于销售给另一组客户的成本。例如，音乐或书籍的出版商可能能够以比光盘或印刷文本等物理形式更低的成本销售电子形式的音乐专辑或书籍。
Q3 Fiscal policy is a package of economic measures of the government regarding public expenditure, public revenue, public debt or borrowings. It is very important since it refers to the budgetary policy of the government. Explain the fiscal policy and its instruments in detail?财政政策是政府关于公共支出、公共收入、公共债务或借款的一揽子经济措施。它非常重要，因为它涉及政府的预算政策。详细解释财政政策及其工具？
Ans: Fiscal policy is the means by which a government adjusts its spending levels and tax rates to monitor and influence a nation’s economy. It is the sister strategy to monetary policy through which a central bank influences a nation’s money supply.
财政政策是政府调整支出水平和税率以监控和影响国家经济的手段。它是货币政策的姊妹策略，中央银行通过它来影响一个国家的货币供应。
instruments of Fiscal Policy are Automatic Stabilizer and Discretionary Fiscal Policy:财政政策的工具是自动稳定器和自由裁量财政政策：
Automatic Stabilizer: The tax structure and expenditure are programmed in such a way that there is increase in expenditure and decrease in tax in recession and decrease in expenditure and increase in tax revenue in the period of inflation. It refers to built-in response to the economic condition without any deliberate action on the part of government. It is called built- in- stabilizer to correct and thus restore economic stability. It works in the following manner, Tax revenue: Tax revenue increases when the income increases; as those who were not paying tax go into the higher income tax bracket. When there is depression, the income decreases and many people fall in the no-income-tax bracket and the tax revenue decreases.
自动稳定机制：税收结构和支出的编程方式是，在经济衰退期间支出增加，税收减少，在通货膨胀期间支出减少，税收增加。它指的是对经济状况的内在反应，而政府没有采取任何深思熟虑的行动。它被称为内置稳定器，以纠正并恢复经济稳定。它的工作方式如下，税收：税收随着收入的增加而增加；因为那些没有纳税的人会进入更高的所得税等级。当出现萧条时，收入会减少，许多人属于无所得税阶层，税收也会减少。
ii) Discretionary Fiscal Policy: Under this, to stabilize the economy, deliberate attempts are made by the government in taxation and expenditure. It entails definite and conscious actions.
自由裁量的财政政策：在这种情况下，为了稳定经济，政府在税收和支出方面进行了深思熟虑的尝试。它需要明确和有意识的行动。
Instruments of Fiscal Policy: Some important instruments of fiscal policy are:财政政策工具：一些重要的财政政策工具是：
– 1.TAXATION: Taxation is always a very important source of revenue for both developed and developing countries. Tax comes under two headingu2013Tax on individual(direct tax) and tax on commodity (indirect tax or commodity tax).
税收：税收始终是发达国家和发展中国家非常重要的收入来源。税收分为两类：2013个人税（直接税）和商品税（间接税或商品税）。
a) Direct tax includes income tax, corporate tax, taxes on property and wealth. Indirect tax is tax on the consumptions. It includes sales tax, excise duty and custom duties. Direct tax structure can be divided into three bases-
直接税包括所得税、公司税、财产税和财富税。间接税是对消费征收的税。它包括销售税、消费税和关税。直接税结构可分为三个基础-
Progressive tax: Progressive tax says that higher the level of income, greater the volume of tax burden you have to bear. This means as income increases, the tax contribution should also increase. Low income group people pay low tax, whereas the high income group people pay higher tax.
累进税：累进税意味着收入水平越高，你必须承担的税负就越大。这意味着随着收入的增加，税收贡献也应该增加。低收入群体缴纳的税款较低，而高收入群体缴纳更高的税款。
2 Regressive tax: It is theoretically possible, though no government implements such tax structure, because that leads to unequal distribution of income. As your income increases the contribution through tax decreases. Low income people will pay more and high income people will pay less.
递减税：理论上是可能的，尽管没有政府实施这样的税收结构，因为这会导致收入分配的不平等。随着你收入的增加，税收的贡献也会减少。低收入人群将支付更多，高收入人群将更少。
Proportional tax: When the tax imposed is irrespective of the income you earn, every income group, high or low pay the same amount of tax.
比例税：当征收的税款与你的收入无关时，每个收入群体，无论高低，都要缴纳相同的税款。
b) Indirect Tax Or consumpyion tax: tax which is iimposed on every unit of product .间接税或消费税：对每一个产品单位征收的税。
间接税或消费税：对每一个产品单位征收的税。
Q4 Explain the various methods of forecasting demand?解释预测需求的各种方法？
Ans : Economic forecasting is the process of making predictions about the economy. Forecasts can be carried out at a high level of aggregation—for example for GDP, inflation, unemployment or the fiscal deficit—or at a more disaggregated level, for specific sectors of the economy or even specific firms.
经济预测是对经济进行预测的过程。可以对国内生产总值、通货膨胀、失业率或财政赤字等进行高水平的综合预测，也可以对特定经济部门甚至特定公司进行更细分的预测。
Methods of forecasting demand:预测需求的方法
Assumptions 假设
For many goods, the length of the product cycle is shrinking. Not only does this make it more difficult to build a historical database, it accentuates the need to forecast correctly. Computer technology makes it possible to adjust pricing instantly and to modify sales promotions on the run. Without accurate historical information to measure the impact of price changes, the business owner may be forced to experiment. Sales performance of other goods with similar product attributes may serve as proxies for a current product with no track record.
对于许多商品来说，产品周期的长度正在缩短。这不仅增加了建立历史数据库的难度，还强调了正确预测的必要性。计算机技术使得即时调整价格和随时修改促销活动成为可能。如果没有准确的历史信息来衡量价格变化的影响，企业主可能会被迫进行实验。具有类似产品属性的其他商品的销售业绩可以作为没有业绩记录的当前产品的代理。
Trend Analysis 趋势分析
If you have historical data — or if you can create it from related products — trend analysis is the first step in demand forecasting. Plotting sales over time will reveal the presence of a sales trend if one exists. If there are aberrations — “hiccups” in the trend — you can look for explanations, which could include price, weather or demographic changes. If you are proficient with spreadsheet programs, you can chart data points and insert a trend line over the data. A more sophisticated approach is using least squares regression analysis which can also be done with standard spreadsheet software.
如果你有历史数据，或者你可以从相关产品中创建数据，趋势分析是需求预测的第一步。绘制一段时间内的销售图将揭示销售趋势的存在（如果存在的话）。如果趋势出现异常——“打嗝”——你可以寻找解释，其中可能包括价格、天气或人口变化。如果你精通电子表格程序，你可以绘制数据点的图表，并在数据上插入一条趋势线。一种更复杂的方法是使用最小二乘回归分析，这也可以用标准的电子表格软件来完成。
Qualitative Forecasting 定性预测
A more subjective approach uses expert opinions to predict demand. Especially useful when there is a lack of historical data, relying on the collective opinion of experts makes sense. Begin with an analysis of the marketplace, reviewing the economic conditions. Obtain as much information about competitors’ performance as you can. Then gather opinions from a variety of sources within your business. Include the owner, sales manager, accountant, attorney and any others whose opinion you value. If you wish, you can get outside opinions as well. Qualitative forecasting is based on the consensus view of your panel as you digest and aggregate their opinions.
一种更主观的方法是使用专家意见来预测需求。尤其是在缺乏历史数据的情况下，依靠专家的集体意见是有意义的。从市场分析开始，回顾经济状况。尽可能多地获取有关竞争对手表现的信息。然后从企业内部的各种来源收集意见。包括业主、销售经理、会计师、律师和任何其他你认为有价值的人。如果你愿意，你也可以得到外界的意见。定性预测是基于你的小组在消化和汇总他们的意见时达成的共识。
Forecasting with Economic Indicators 用经济指标进行预测
Depending on the products you sell and the customers who buy them, basing your demand forecast on one or more economic indicators may be an effective method. This style of demand forecasting works better with industrial buyers rather than retail. First, find the indicators that relate to your business. For example, small businesses in construction-related work can look to housing starts, building permits, loan applications and interest rates for solid indicators of the future. Businesses in agriculture can find clues to the future from farm income, interest rates and weather forecasts. The Departments of Commerce and Agriculture release statistics on an ongoing basis. Agricultural Extension Services and other state agencies provide complementary data
根据你销售的产品和购买这些产品的客户，根据一个或多个经济指标进行需求预测可能是一种有效的方法。这种类型的需求预测更适合工业买家，而不是零售买家。首先，找到与您的业务相关的指标。例如，从事建筑相关工作的小企业可以从住房开工、建筑许可证、贷款申请和利率等方面寻找未来的可靠指标。农业企业可以从农业收入、利率和天气预报中找到未来的线索。商务部和农业部持续发布统计数据。农业推广服务和其他国家机构提供补充数据
Q5 Define monopolistic competition and explain its characteristics? 定义垄断竞争并解释其特征？
Ans: Monopolistic Competition: A market structure in which several or many sellers each produce similar, but slightly differentiated products. Each producer can set its price and quantity without affecting the market place as a whole.
垄断竞争：一种市场结构，几个或多个卖家各自生产相似但略有差异的产品。每个生产商都可以在不影响整个市场的情况下设定价格和数量。
Monopolistically competitive markets exhibit the following characteristics:垄断竞争市场表现出以下特点
Each firm makes independent decisions about price and output, based on its product, its market, and its costs of production.
每家公司根据其产品、市场和生产成本，对价格和产量做出独立决策。
Knowledge is widely spread between participants, but it is unlikely to be perfect. For example, diners can review all the menus available from restaurants in a town, before they make their choice. Once inside the restaurant, they can view the menu again, before ordering. However, they cannot fully appreciate the restaurant or the meal until after they have dined.
知识在参与者之间广泛传播，但不太可能是完美的。例如，食客在做出选择之前，可以查看镇上餐馆的所有菜单。进入餐厅后，他们可以在点餐前再次查看菜单。然而，他们在用餐后才能完全欣赏这家餐厅或这顿饭。
The entrepreneur has a more significant role than in firms that are perfectly competitive because of the increased risks associated with decision making.
由于与决策相关的风险增加，企业家在具有完全竞争力的公司中扮演着更重要的角色。
There is freedom to enter or leave the market, as there are no major barriers to entry or exit.
有进入或离开市场的自由，因为进入或退出没有主要障碍。
A central feature of monopolistic competition is that products are differentiated. There are four main types of differentiation:垄断竞争的一个核心特征是产品存在差异。分化主要有四种类型：
Physical product differentiation, where firms use size, design, colour, shape, performance, and features to make their products different. For example, consumer electronics can easily be physically differentiated.实物产品差异化，即企业利用尺寸、设计、颜色、形状、性能和功能使其产品与众不同。例如，消费电子产品可以很容易地在物理上进行区分。
Marketing differentiation, where firms try to differentiate their product by distinctive packaging and other promotional techniques. For example, breakfast cereals can easily be differentiated through packaging.营销差异化，即企业试图通过独特的包装和其他促销技术来区分其产品。例如，早餐麦片可以很容易地通过包装进行区分。
Human capital differentiation, where the firm creates differences through the skill of its employees, the level of training received, distinctive uniforms, and so on.
人力资本差异化，即公司通过员工的技能、接受的培训水平、独特的制服等创造差异。
Differentiation through distribution, including distribution via mail order or through internet shopping, such as Amazon.com, which differentiates itself from traditional bookstores by selling online.
通过分销实现差异化，包括通过邮购或互联网购物实现分销，如亚马逊，它通过在线销售将自己与传统书店区分开来。
Firms are price makers and are faced with a downward sloping demand curve. Because each firm makes a unique product, it can charge a higher or lower price than its rivals. The firm can set its own price and does not have to ‘take’ it from the industry as a whole, though the industry price may be a guideline, or becomes a constraint. This also means that the demand curve will slope downwards.
企业是价格制定者，面临着向下倾斜的需求曲线。因为每家公司都生产独特的产品，所以它可以比竞争对手收取更高或更低的价格。企业可以制定自己的价格，不必从整个行业“拿走”，尽管行业价格可能是一个指导方针，也可能成为一个约束。这也意味着需求曲线将向下倾斜。
Firms operating under monopolistic competition usually have to engage in advertising. Firms are often in fierce competition with other (local) firms offering a similar product or service, and may need to advertise on a local basis, to let customers know their differences. Common methods of advertising for these firms are through local press and radio, local cinema, posters, leaflets and special promotions.
在垄断竞争下经营的公司通常不得不从事广告业务。公司通常与提供类似产品或服务的其他（当地）公司竞争激烈，可能需要在当地做广告，让客户知道他们的差异。这些公司的常见广告方式是通过当地媒体和广播、当地电影院、海报、传单和特别促销。
Monopolistically competitive firms are assumed to beprofit maximisers because firms tend to be small with entrepreneurs actively involved in managing the business.
垄断竞争企业被认为是利润最大化者，因为企业往往规模较小，企业家积极参与企业管理。
There are usually a large numbers of independent firms competing in the market.
通常有大量的独立公司在市场上竞争。
Q6 When should a firm in perfectly competitive market shut down its operation?一家处于完全竞争市场中的公司应该什么时候停止运营？
Ans Definition of ‘Perfect Competition’“完全竞争”的定义
A market structure in which the following five criteria are met:符合以下五个标准的市场结构
1) All firms sell an identical product;所有公司都销售相同的产品；
2) All firms are price takers – they cannot control the market price of their product;所有公司都销售相同的产品；
3) All firms have a relatively small market share;所有公司都销售相同的产品；
4) Buyers have complete information about the product being sold and the prices charged by each firm; 所有公司都销售相同的产品；
5) The industry is characterized by freedom of entry and exit.该行业的特点是出入境自由。
Perfect competition is sometimes referred to as “pure competition”.完全竞争有时被称为“纯粹竞争”。
The reason for firm shut down in perfect competition 公司在完全竞争中倒闭的原因
A perfectly competitive firm is presumed to shutdown production and produce no output in the short run, if price is less than average variable cost. This is one of three short-run production alternatives facing a firm. The other two are profit maximization (if price exceeds average total cost) and loss minimization (if price is greater than average variable cost but less than average total cost).
如果价格低于平均可变成本，一家完全竞争的公司被认为会在短期内停产，不生产任何产品。这是一家公司面临的三种短期生产替代方案之一。另外两种是利润最大化（如果价格超过平均总成本）和损失最小化（如果价格大于平均可变成本但小于平均总成本的话）。
A perfectly competitive firm guided by the pursuit of profit is inclined to produce no output if the quantity that equates marginal revenue and marginal cost in the short run incurs an economic loss greater than total fixed cost. The key to this loss minimization production decision is a comparison of the loss incurred from producing with the loss incurred from not producing. If price is less than average variable cost, then the firm incurs a smaller loss by not producing that by producing.
如果短期内边际收入和边际成本相等的数量导致的经济损失大于总固定成本，那么一个以追求利润为导向的完全竞争的公司倾向于不生产任何产品。这种损失最小化生产决策的关键是比较生产造成的损失和不生产造成的损耗。如果价格低于平均可变成本，那么公司因不生产而产生的损失较小。
One of Three Alternatives: Shutting down is one of three short-run production alternatives facing a perfectly competitive firm. All three are displayed in the table to the right. The other two are profit maximization and loss minimization.
三种替代方案之一：关闭是一家竞争激烈的公司面临的三种短期生产替代方案之一。这三个都显示在右边的表格中。另外两个是利润最大化和损失最小化。
With profit maximization, price exceeds average total cost at the quantity that equates marginal revenue and marginal cost. In this case, the firm generates an economic profit.
在利润最大化的情况下，价格超过平均总成本，数量等于边际收入和边际成本。在这种情况下，公司产生了经济利润。
With loss minimization, price is greater than average variable cost but is less than average total cost at the quantity that equates marginal revenue and marginal cost. In this case, the firm incurs a smaller loss by producing some output than by not producing any output.
在损失最小化的情况下，价格高于平均可变成本，但低于等于边际收入和边际成本的数量下的平均总成本。在这种情况下，公司生产一些产出比不生产任何产出造成的损失更小。本站提供各国各专业留学生Essay代写或Essay写作指导服务，如有需要可咨询本平台。