International Relations Essay代写-大国政治的理论解释。本文是一篇留学生国际关系essay写作范文，主要内容是讲述后殖民主义主要关注南部、次殖民地及其过去，因为正如亚伯拉罕森所说，“任何对当代IR的理解都需要仔细考虑在殖民地过去和后殖民地现在将北方和南方联系起来的多重多样的权力关系。“后殖民主义起源于一项工作，该工作的目的是为南方和亚殖民地的历史发声，因为它被压制，甚至被帝国主义欧洲的行动所压制。“后殖民理论将南方和亚南方置于分析的中心。”Essay范文指出这是国际关系领域中的一个新的理论领域，是从文学和文化研究中产生的。“开始后殖民主义工作的最重要的运动是（现在仍然是）重新审视印度历史和史学的亚交替研究小组。”后殖民主义与印度史学的联系源于两者共同的反霸权愿望，“后殖民主义与印度史学有着密切的联系，其动机是希望从被殖民者的反霸权立场复述历史。”，呼吁回归“原始、未受破坏的前殖民文化”，许多人甚至声称这将是有害的，如果不是不可能的话。我将通过观察后殖民研究的一些关键贡献者来探索后殖民主义，即法农和赛义德，并简要介绍斯皮瓦克和巴哈。在这篇文章中，我将谈到后结构主义领域对拉康、福柯和德里达等作家的影响。然后，我将研究杂交、种族和地理位置的概念，这些概念在最近的后殖民主义工作中得到了修正，这一点更为引人注目，最后我将研究一些针对后殖民主义理论的批评，尤其是霍布森的批评。下面就是这篇留学生国际关系essay写作范文的全部内容，供参考。
Postcolonialism is primarily concerned with the south, the subaltern and its past because as Abrahamsen argues, “Any understanding of contemporary IR requires a careful account of the multiple and diverse power relationships that link the North and the South, both in the colonial past and the postcolonial present.” (Abrahamsen, 2007) Postcolonialism finds its origins in work done with a view to give a voice to the history of the south and the subaltern that was not heard as it was silenced, even gagged by the actions of imperialist Europe. “Postcolonial theory places the south and the subaltern at the centre of analyses.” (Abrahamsen, 2007) It is a contextually new area of theory within the sphere of international relations that has emerged out of literary and cultural studies. “The most significant movement that began postcolonial work was (and still is) the subaltern studies group that (re)examined Indian history and historiography.” (Goss, 1996) The connection postcolonialism shares with Indian historiography stems from the counter hegemonic aspirations shared by both, “Postcolonialism has strong affinities with Indian historiography, which has been motivated by a desire to retell history from the counter-hegemonic standpoints of the colonised.” (Abrahamsen, 2007) On the whole postcolonialism does not, however, call for the return to a “pristine, unspoilt pre-colonial culture,” (Abrahamsen, 2007) and many even claim that this would be detrimental if not impossible. I will explore postcolonialism through looking at some of the key contributors to postcolonial study, namely Fanon and Said with a briefer look at Spivak and Bhabha. Within this I will touch upon the influences that came from the field of post-structuralism with writers such as Lacan, Faucault and Derrida. I will then look at the concepts of hybridity, ethnicity and location that have become revised and this more compelling in recent postcolonial work before finally looking at some criticism that has been aimed at postcolonial theory, notably from Hobson.
Fanon was a very influential part of early postcolonialism; his work can be divided into three separate sections, investigating black identity, the resisting colonisation and the process of decolonisation. Fanon’s ‘search for black identity’ is best demonstrated in his work Black Skin, White Masks. In this work Fanon suggests that colonialism and its deep rooted ideas of “white racial superiority” (Fanon, 1967) over non-white people has formed a sense of severance and estrangement in the self-identity of the non-white colonised people. The history, culture, language, customs and beliefs of the white coloniser are, under colonial rule, to be regarded as universal, the norm and better or higher than those of the indigenous colonised people. This produces a strong sense of inadequacy throughout the colonised and eventually, in order to counteract these feelings of inadequacy, this leads the colonised to adopt the culture and customs of the colonisers. Within the colonised this forms a divided sense of self in identity shaping and a feeling of alienation from their own culture. Fanon also suggests that the taking on of the coloniser’s language and forms of representation is additionally detrimental to the indigenous people as representational stereotypes are created which were more often than not reflected on the colonised as primitive and uncivilised, as Fanon puts it, “As I begin to recognize that the Negro is the symbol of sin, I catch myself hating the Negro. But then I recognize that I am a Negro.” (Fanon, 1967) It is clear that Fanon is greatly influenced on the subject of identity by post-sctructuralist thinker Lacan. Particularly Lacan’s concept of the ‘mirror-stage’ of identity formation, which occurs in early childhood and is linked to the idea of an ‘image of completeness’ in the body of another person independent of the self.
法农是早期后殖民主义非常有影响力的一部分；他的工作可以分为三个独立的部分，调查黑人身份、反抗殖民和非殖民化进程。法农的“寻找黑人身份”在他的作品《黑皮肤，白面具》中得到了最好的体现。在这部作品中，法农提出，殖民主义及其对非白人的“白人种族优越”的根深蒂固的观念，在非白人殖民地人民的自我认同中形成了一种分离和隔阂感。在殖民统治下，白人殖民者的历史、文化、语言、习俗和信仰被视为普遍的、规范的，比土著殖民者更好或更高。这在整个殖民者中产生了强烈的不足感，最终，为了抵消这些不足感，这导致殖民者采纳了殖民者的文化和习俗。在被殖民者内部，这在身份塑造中形成了一种分裂的自我意识，以及对自己文化的疏离感。法农还表示，接受殖民者的语言和代表形式对土著人民也有害，因为代表刻板印象的产生往往反映在被殖民者身上，如法农所说，他们是原始和不文明的，“当我开始认识到黑人是罪恶的象征时，我发现自己憎恨黑人。但后来我认识到我是黑人。”。特别是拉康关于身份形成的“镜像阶段”的概念，它发生在幼儿时期，与独立于自我的另一个人的身体中的“完整形象”的概念有关。
Fanon’s second phase of work relates to the “struggle against colonialism” (Fanon, 1967), which has strong links to his involvement in the Algerian War of independence which eventually saw him exiled from Algeria. His work on this area can be found mostly in his books Dying Colonialism and Toward the African Revolution, and with the revolutionary nature and context in which these works were written it is not surprising to discover they were heavily influenced by Karl Marx and Western Marxism. Fanon’s arguably most significant work on the ‘struggle against colonialism’ was his interest and concern with history, much of which in his book The Wretched of The Earth. Fanon believed that the struggle against colonialism crucially involved the colonised ‘claiming back’ their history from the negative or non-existent accounts that had been shaped by the colonisers. He emphasizes the crucial significance of the culture and representations of their past being essential to the formation of both new positive forms of identity formation and new forms of social organisation which are required in the newly independent post-colonial era (Fanon, 1967).
法农的第二阶段工作涉及“反殖民主义斗争”（法农，1967年），这与他参与阿尔及利亚独立战争有着密切的联系，阿尔及利亚独立战争最终导致他从阿尔及利亚流亡。他在这方面的工作主要见于他的著作《垂死的殖民主义》和《走向非洲革命》，鉴于这些作品的革命性质和写作背景，发现它们受到卡尔·马克思和西方马克思主义的严重影响并不奇怪。法农关于“反殖民主义斗争”的最有意义的著作是他对历史的兴趣和关注，其中大部分都在他的著作《地球的悲惨》中。法农认为，反对殖民主义的斗争关键在于殖民者从殖民者塑造的负面或不存在的叙述中“找回”他们的历史。他强调，他们过去的文化和表现对于形成新的积极的身份形成形式和新的社会组织形式至关重要，这是新独立的后殖民时代所需要的。
It is the process of decolonisation which characterises Fanon’s third stage of critical work. Beside the recovery and “reconstruction of their own history and culture as the foundation for the new post-colonial forms of nation and national identity”, (Fanon, 1967) Fanon also considers two additional ideas which are of central interest to later postcolonial work. These two ideas are the concepts of ‘colonial space’ and ideas related to the role of the middle class intelligentsia, sometimes called the comprador bourgeoisie, in new postcolonial nations. Both of these ideas were born out of Fanon’s belief that it is key for the nations that the world has given birth to in the postcolonial era to create original forms of social democracy instead of using existing colonial institutions and merely swap indigenous people into already existing administrative positions. Fanon uses the example of city structure to suggest that these colonial institutions are fundamentally racist because they replicate, repeat and (re)create the concepts and ideas of the colonisers. This can be demonstrated through the fact that most colonial cities have areas within them where the colonial administration and businessmen live and work. These are regions of privilege which often reject indigenous people and in doing so reaffirm the ideologies of the colonisers. Fanon believes in a “large scale rebuilding” (Fanon, 1967) of these urban areas and all other types of colonial administration and government in an approach which will create more democratic, postcolonial forms of social organisation, in order to systematically reject the ideologies which support colonial rule. Fanon also adds that the educated groups of the colonised population need to recognise that their education is founded on the ideologies and the beliefs of those who colonised them and even though they themselves are the indigenous people, they need to be careful not to reproduce the coloniser’s concepts and beliefs when reconstructing in the postcolonial era.
这是法农第三阶段批判性工作的特点——脱色过程。除了恢复和“重建自己的历史和文化，作为新的后殖民形式的国家和民族认同的基础”，Fanon还考虑了两个对后来的后殖民工作具有核心意义的额外想法。这两个概念是“殖民空间”的概念，以及与中产阶级知识分子（有时被称为买办资产阶级）在新的后殖民国家中的角色相关的概念。这两个想法都源于法农的信念，即世界在后殖民时代诞生的国家，创造原始形式的社会民主，而不是利用现有的殖民制度，仅仅将土著人民换成现有的行政职位，这是关键。法农用城市结构的例子表明，这些殖民机构根本上是种族主义的，因为它们复制、重复和（重新）创造了殖民者的概念和思想。这可以通过以下事实来证明：大多数殖民地城市都有殖民地政府和商人居住和工作的地区。这些特权地区往往排斥土著人民，并以此重申殖民者的意识形态。法农相信对这些城市地区和所有其他类型的殖民行政和政府进行“大规模重建”，其方法将创造更民主、后殖民形式的社会组织，以系统地拒绝支持殖民统治的意识形态。Fanon还补充道，受教育的殖民人口群体需要认识到，他们的教育是建立在那些对他们进行殖民的人的意识形态和信仰基础上的，即使他们自己是原住民，在后殖民时代重建时，他们也需要小心不要复制殖民者的观念和信仰。
Said is, along with Fanon, one of the most important academics within postcolonial theory, “It is Ahmad who has identified Said’s lasting contribution, as the first to provide, ‘a whole critical apparatus for defining a postmodern kind of anti-colonialism’ which, also for the first time, had little (if no) relation to Marxism” (Goss, 1996) Said’s most famous work, Orientalism, was a pioneering analysis of the stereotypes and colonial assumptions that are inherent in Western representations of the ‘Orient’. For Said the ‘Orient’ was the people and cultures that extended from North Africa and the Middle East. In Orientalism, the argument he makes is that that the representation of the orient in the West has been as the ‘binary opposite’ of the West or ‘Occident’. Said examines the West’s view of the Orient and believes that the way the Orient is seen by the west is as encapsulating everything they find awkward or unsettling to their dominant image. The West projects this ‘fantasy’ image onto the largely unknown orient and in this sense it is seen as the occident’s other. Said follows this on with a discussion of how the western depictions of the orient work to re-impose ‘colonial domination’ by using their own western beliefs and culture as a way of counteracting the deficient, potentially harmful qualities of local, ‘inferior’ cultures. Said also believes that this Orientalism he speaks of comes in two separate forms, drawn from Freudian ideas Said labels them latent and manifest Orientalism. Said describes latent and manifest orientslism respectively as, “an unconscious (and certainly an untouchable) positivity and the various stated views about Oriental society, languages, literatures, history, sociology and so forth.” (Said, 1973) Essentially latent Orientalism is, as Kennedy puts it, “a collective and unconscious shared set of images and attitudes that does not change through time.” (Kennedy, 2000) Manifest Orientalism follows on from this as the expression in words and actions of latent Orientalism.
赛义德和法农是后殖民理论中最重要的学者之一，“正是艾哈迈德认为赛义德的持久贡献，是第一个提供了‘一个定义后现代反殖民主义的完整批判工具’，这也是第一次，与马克思主义几乎没有关系”赛义德最著名的著作《东方主义》，是对西方对“东方”的固有刻板印象和殖民假设的开创性分析。对于赛义德来说，“东方”是从北非和中东延伸出来的人民和文化。在东方主义中，他提出的论点是，东方在西方的表现一直是西方或西方的“二元对立”。赛义德审视了西方对东方的看法，认为西方看待东方的方式概括了他们对自己主导形象感到尴尬或不安的一切。西方将这种“幻想”的形象投射到基本上未知的东方，在这个意义上，它被视为西方的另一个。赛义德接着讨论了西方对东方的描述如何利用他们自己的西方信仰和文化来重新强加“殖民统治”，以抵消当地“劣质”文化的缺陷和潜在的有害品质。赛义德还认为，他所说的东方主义有两种不同的形式，取自弗洛伊德的思想，赛义德将其称为潜在的和明显的东方主义。赛义德将潜在的和明显的东方主义分别描述为“一种无意识的（当然是不可触摸的）积极性，以及关于东方社会、语言、文学、历史、社会学等的各种观点。”（本质上潜在的东方主义，正如肯尼迪所说，“一组集体的、无意识的、共享的、不随时间变化的图像和态度。”《明显的东方主义》（Manifest Orientalism）以此作为潜在东方主义的言语和行动表达。
The negative representations and stereotypes touched upon by Said are examined further by McLeod in Beginning Postcolonialism. He looks at the defamatory way in which the Middle-East is portrayed from an ‘orientalist’ perspective. A summation of the ways in which the East is represented by the West is presented by Mcleod, “The orient is timeless i.e. without a concept of history until given one by the west, strange, feminine, and degenerate. In short, the East is everything morally negative in comparison to the West’s moral superiority.” (McLeod, 2000) The foundations on which Said builds his work on the representations of the East by those in the West are significantly influenced by French post-structuralist Faucault and his works The Archaeology of Knowledge and Discipline and Punish. Said uses Faucault’s ideas on the formulation and use of a discourse to try to firmly establish the concept of orientalism. “For Foucault, a ‘discourse’ is a body of thought and writing that is united by having a common object of study, a common methodology, and/or a set of common terms and ideas.” (Klages, 2001) The ‘archaeology’ Foucault undertakes is to unearth the characteristics that underpin certain statements and then try to define the reasons and situations under which these statements go on to form a discourse. There is, what some might call, a formula for identifying these statements as a discourse, I will use Said’s work on Postcolonialism as an example to explain each criteria. Primarily and fundamentally the statements making up the discourse should all have a shared element of analysis, in the case of Said the element of analysis is, of course, the orient. Secondly all statements should have a shared style of rhetoric, in the case of Said this is the rhetoric of the colonisers and their belief in the West being over and above the East. Thirdly the statements need to have a logical structure of concepts, in this case concepts such as capitalism and liberalism that have evolved out of the West’s supposedly superior rationality. Finally there needs to be a connecting theme that runs through all the statements, within Said’s work we can say that this theme is the West over and above the east in their moral, cultural and intellectual standings.
赛义德在《后殖民主义的开端》一书中进一步探讨了赛义德所触及的负面表征和刻板印象。他从“东方主义”的角度看待中东的诽谤性描绘方式。麦克劳德总结了西方代表东方的方式，“东方是永恒的，也就是说，在西方赋予历史概念之前，东方没有历史概念，陌生、女性化和堕落。简而言之，与西方的道德优越性相比，东方在道德上都是消极的。“赛义德将其作品建立在西方代表东方的基础上，受到法国后结构主义者福柯及其作品《知识与纪律的考古学》和《惩罚》的显著影响。赛义德利用福柯关于话语的表述和使用的观点，试图牢固地确立东方主义的概念。“对福柯来说，‘话语’是一个思想和写作的主体，通过有共同的研究对象、共同的方法论和/或一套共同的术语和理念而统一起来。“福柯的‘考古学’致力于挖掘支撑某些陈述的特征，然后试图定义这些陈述形成话语的原因和情况。有人可能会说，有一个公式可以将这些言论视为一种话语，我将以赛义德关于后殖民主义的工作为例来解释每一个标准。基本上，构成话语的陈述都应该有一个共同的分析元素，在赛义德的情况下，分析元素当然是方向的。其次，所有的言论都应该有一种共同的修辞风格，在赛义德案中，这是殖民者的修辞，他们相信西方高于东方。第三，声明需要有一个逻辑的概念结构，在这种情况下，资本主义和自由主义等概念是从西方所谓的优越理性中演变而来的。最后，需要有一个贯穿所有声明的连接主题，在赛义德的作品中，我们可以说，这个主题是西方在道德、文化和智力方面高于东方。
Having mentioned Faucault I think it is also necessary to talk about the important influence of another post-structuralist theorist on postcolonial theory, namely Derrida. Derrida is heavily connected with the approach to critical analysis known as deconstruction, which is defined by Chambers dictionary as “an approach to critical analysis applied especially to literary texts which asserts that it is impossible for any text to communicate a fixed and stable meaning, and that readers should leave behind all philosophical and other concepts when approaching a text” (Chambers Dictionary, 1997)
提到福柯之后，我认为还有必要谈谈另一位后结构主义理论家对后殖民理论的重要影响，即德里达。德里达与被称为解构主义的批判分析方法密切相关，《钱伯斯词典》将其定义为“一种特别适用于文学文本的批评分析方法，该方法断言任何文本都不可能传达固定和稳定的含义，读者在阅读文本时都应该抛弃所有哲学和其他概念”
One of the themes of deconstruction is to untangle the dichotomies, or ‘binary oppositions’ more specifically, that make up Western and Western-derived thought. There are an almost endless number of these binary oppositions; examples would include male-female, mind-body, rational-emotional, north-south and western-eastern. According to Derrida there is a hierarchy present in all binary oppositions with one term being dominant over the other. Importantly Derrida also suggests that the terms on each side of the dichotomy define each other and consequently are not secure. Starting with Fanon postcolonial theory has also paid a great deal of attention to these binary oppositions, particularly the ones closely related to colonialism, and the hierarchy that exists within them.
解构主义的主题之一是解开构成西方和西方衍生思想的二分法，更具体地说是“二元对立”。这些二元对立几乎有无数种；这些例子包括男女、身心、理性情感、南北和东西方。根据德里达的说法，在所有二元对立中都存在一种等级制度，一个术语支配另一个术语。重要的是，德里达还指出，二分法两边的术语相互定义，因此并不安全。从法农的后殖民理论开始，也对这些二元对立给予了极大的关注，尤其是与殖民主义密切相关的对立，以及它们内部存在的等级制度。
Another two influential postcolonial thinkers come in the form of Spivak and Bhabha; the areas on which they focus, feminism and post-modernism to name two, and have become crucial to the thought within postcolonialism. In looking at their work it is clear that two key themes that yet again turn up are identity and representation. A great deal of work within the postcolonial sphere has been focused upon the relationship between representation and the forming of identity. Within this area there are three concepts that have been used to shed analytical light onto the subject, namely hybridity, ethnicity and cultural location. These concepts are, evidently, connected but postcolonialists don’t limit themselves to these areas of critical analysis.
另两位有影响力的后殖民思想家是斯皮瓦克和巴哈；他们所关注的领域，女权主义和后现代主义，已经成为后殖民主义思想的关键。从他们的作品来看，很明显，再次出现的两个关键主题是身份和表征。后殖民领域的大量工作都集中在表征与身份形成之间的关系上。在这一领域中，有三个概念被用来解释这个问题，即杂交、种族和文化位置。显然，这些概念是相互关联的，但后殖民主义者并不局限于这些批判性分析领域。
Hybridity is essentially the mixing of two, or more, cultures, languages, beliefs or social patterns. It is seen by many, including Bhabha as a form of resistance, “Hybridity, for Bhabha , is a sign of resisting domination. Hybrid identities can engender new forms of being that can unsettle and subvert colonial authority.” (Abrahamsen, 2007) Hybridity can be linked with previous ideas in postcolonialism, the idea of retrieving postcolonial forms of history, culture and language in order to create new national identities is mentioned throughout postcolonial works. However, the migrations that occur inside and outside the colonies i.e. colonisers migrating into the colonies and the colonised migrating out to the colonial powers, has resulted in a much higher level of hybridity within national identities than initially thought. It had been in many early postcolonial works that one of the most prominent forms of collective resistance was the focus on a separate identity and being culturally distinct from the colonisers. It has recently been shown how difficult identity construction of this sort is and further investigation is being undertaken in this area. The conditions under which hybridity occurs in postcolonial societies can consist of mass recognition of cultural suppression, a colonial invasion with the purpose of securing control politically and economically, and when colonial settlers migrate into an area and make the indigenous people conform to their new social patterns. It could be argued that an example of the indigenous people conforming to new social patterns can be found with the aborigines in Australia, colonisers introduced them to much stronger alcohol than they had ever been used to and alcohol abuse is now a major issue within aborigine culture, “Aborigines are twice as likely to die from the effects of alcohol as their non-indigenous counterparts.” (Mecer, 2007) Examples of hybridity within national identity can be seen by means of sport throughout the world, football, rugby and cricket are all of English invention and can be identified as the national sports of countries that used to be British colonies i.e. Football in African countries such as Ghana, Rugby in Australia and Cricket in India.
混杂本质上是两种或多种文化、语言、信仰或社会模式的混合。包括巴巴在内的许多人都将其视为反抗的一种形式，“对巴巴来说，混杂是反抗统治的一种标志。混杂身份可以产生新的存在形式，可以扰乱和颠覆殖民权威。”混杂可以与前殖民主义的思想联系在一起，为了创造新的民族身份，文化和语言在后殖民时期的作品中被提及。然而，发生在殖民地内外的移民，即移居殖民地的殖民者和移居殖民大国的被殖民者，导致了比最初想象的更高水平的民族身份的混杂。在许多早期的后殖民主义作品中，最突出的集体反抗形式之一是关注一种独立的身份，并在文化上与殖民者不同。最近的研究表明，这种身份的构建是多么困难，并且正在这一领域进行进一步的调查。在后殖民社会中发生混杂的条件可能包括对文化压制的大规模承认，以确保政治和经济控制为目的的殖民入侵，以及殖民定居者迁移到某一地区并使土著人民适应其新的社会模式。可以说，澳大利亚的原住民就是符合新社会模式的土著人的一个例子，殖民者向他们介绍了比以往更浓的酒精，而酗酒现在是原住民文化中的一个主要问题，“原住民死于酒精的可能性是非原住民的两倍。“通过世界各地的体育运动，可以看到民族认同中的混合性，足球、橄榄球和板球都是英国发明的，可以被视为曾经是英国殖民地的国家的民族运动，即非洲国家的足球，如加纳、澳大利亚的橄榄球和印度的板球。
Ethnicity, some would say, is connected directly to the idea that hybridity is strong in national identities within postcolonial areas. Previously in postcolonial theory much of what now falls under the banner of ethnicity used to be labelled race. The main reason for this is centred on the idea of ‘blackness’ and being ‘black’ as an identity. This idea of ‘blackness’ stemmed predominantly from physical characteristics as an indicator of identity. Although this found a use when it came to the fight against racism and colonialism it came to be thought of as homogenising the experiences of all black people. Consequently this view also simplified the assorted and varied cultures within the black community. In addition to this, the idea of being ‘black’ as an identity was prone to ‘privileging’ black people by identifying them as the only ones to suffer from racism and colonialism. Subsequently within postcolonial work the term race has been ousted in favour of the term ethnicity. The concept of ethnicity distinguishes between cultures, religions and social activities that comprise a cultural identity whereas the physically based concept of race tends to homogenise. Additionally the move towards ethnicity shows a clear acknowledgement of hybridity and cultural identity and consequently beings them closer to the surface of critical activity within postcolonialism theory.
有人会说，种族主义与后殖民地区的民族特性中的混杂性很强的观点直接相关。以前，在后殖民理论中，现在大部分属于种族的东西都被贴上了种族的标签。其主要原因集中在“黑人”和作为一种身份的“黑人”的观念上。这种“黑度”的概念主要来源于作为身份标志的身体特征。尽管这在反对种族主义和殖民主义的斗争中有用处，但它被认为是将所有黑人的经历同质化。因此，这种观点也简化了黑人社区内各种各样的文化。除此之外，将“黑人”作为一种身份的想法往往会“特权化”黑人，因为他们是唯一遭受种族主义和殖民主义之苦的人。随后，在后殖民时期的工作中，种族一词被推翻，取而代之的是种族一词。种族概念区分了构成文化身份的文化、宗教和社会活动，而基于身体的种族概念则趋于同质化。此外，迈向种族化表明了对杂交和文化认同的明确承认，从而使他们更接近后殖民主义理论中的批判活动的表面。
Given the extra focus on the previously mentioned concepts of cultural identity and hybridity coupled with the move from race to ethnicity, the comprehension of the concept of cultural location necessarily becomes more sophisticated. It is no longer concerned with the analysis of a specific geographical area so much as the analysis of the cultures, religions and social activities which interact to produce a cultural identity. This change in focus away from the geographical means that crucially important populations that may have migrated around, or out of, a colonised land, perhaps taking their culture with them, are not left out of postcolonialist work. Consequently a deeper and more complex research can be undertaken on the concepts of racism and colonialism.
鉴于对前面提到的文化身份和混杂概念的额外关注，再加上从种族到种族的转变，对文化位置概念的理解必然变得更加复杂。它不再关注对特定地理区域的分析，而是分析相互作用产生文化认同的文化、宗教和社会活动。这种重心从地理位置上转移的变化意味着，可能在殖民地周围或从殖民地移出的至关重要的人口，可能带着他们的文化，不会被排除在后殖民主义工作之外。因此，可以对种族主义和殖民主义的概念进行更深入、更复杂的研究
There has been some criticism thrown at postcolonialism, perhaps as it has many branches the reach into different areas, Hobson for one argues that postcolonialism is plagued by its constant expansion, “The term postcolonial seems increasingly to be straining at its seams, incorporating a proliferating series of theories with varying ontologies and epistemologies many of which are incommensurable, as even some postcolonialist recognise.” (Hobson, 2007) On top of this he claims that the postcolonialist view point is narrow sighted and overlooks a vast period of time in empires did not cover the world, “East/West relations have, for the majority of world historical time existed outside the orbit of empire, thus rendering a central focus on imperialism as inadequate to the task of revealing Eastern agency.” (Hobson, 2007) He then argues that even though postcolonialism claims to try and undo, “the Eurocentrism produced by the institution of the West’s trajectory,” (Goss, 1996) it is still fundamentally flawed and even Eurocentric itself, “Postcolonialists refuse to grant subjectivity to Eastern actors and thereby deny them agency.” (Hobson, 2007)
有人对后殖民主义提出了一些批评，也许是因为它有许多分支可以延伸到不同的领域，霍布森认为，后殖民主义受到其不断扩张的困扰，“后殖民主义这个词似乎越来越难以理解，它包含了一系列不断增长的理论，其中有各种各样的本体论和认识论，其中许多是不可通约的，甚至一些后殖民主义者也承认这一点。”世界，“在世界历史的大部分时间里，东西方关系都存在于帝国的轨道之外，因此，对帝国主义的中心关注不足以揭示东方机构的任务。”，“西方轨迹的制度所产生的欧洲中心主义”，它仍然存在根本性的缺陷，甚至是欧洲中心主义本身，“后殖民主义者拒绝赋予东方行动者主体性，从而剥夺他们的代理权。”
I have looked at the arguments and ideas put forward by the most influential writers in postcolonial theory. Fanon’s search for black identity, struggle against colonisation and process of decolonisation investigation, I believe, are very persuasive. Especially his look at black identity as I believe the majority of ones identity is formed through similar concepts to Lacan’s mirror-stage identity formation. Another convincing argument, for me, is that regarding stereotypes, binary opposition and deconstruction. A great deal is tied up within our languages, evident when there isn’t a translation of certain words from one language into another. Consequently it can only lead to false understandings and misinterpretations throughout the world, especially in those places where languages are forced to co-habit such as colonial, and now postcolonial, areas. Essentially I think it is important to tackle the problem and discover the source of Western bias that undeniably exists in the contemporary world. In addition to this, perhaps more importantly, the countries and people who have been suppressed, silenced and denied a history need to be compensated, if not least through continuing study I this area. “The need, in nations, or groups which have been victims of imperialism to achieve an identity uncontaminated by universalist or Eurocentric concepts or images.” (During, 1990)
Essay范文的作者看过后殖民理论中最有影响力的作家提出的论点和观点。其相信，法农对黑人身份的探索、反对殖民主义的斗争和非殖民化调查的过程都很有说服力。尤其是他对黑人身份的看法，因为作者相信大多数人的身份是通过与拉康的镜像阶段身份形成相似的概念形成的。对于作者来说，另一个令人信服的论点是关于刻板印象、二元对立和解构。我们的语言中有很多东西是联系在一起的，当某些单词没有从一种语言翻译成另一种语言时，这一点就很明显了。因此，它只会导致世界各地的错误理解和误解，尤其是在那些语言被迫共同习惯的地方，如殖民地和现在的后殖民地地区。本质上，Essay作者认为解决这个问题并发现当代世界无可否认存在的西方偏见的根源是很重要的。除此之外，也许更重要的是，那些被压制、沉默和否认历史的国家和人民需要得到补偿，至少通过继续研究这一领域。“作为帝国主义牺牲品的国家或团体需要实现一种不受普世主义或欧洲中心主义概念或形象污染的身份认同。”本站提供各国各专业Essay代写或指导服务，如有需要可咨询本平台。