本文是教育专业的Essay范例，题目是“CanadianResidentialSchoolSystemEducationEssay（加拿大寄宿学校系统教育论文）”，加拿大教师杂志是一个教育学术资源，旨在供高中学生和教师、年轻的加拿大人、社区和任何可能对第一民族教育历史感兴趣的人使用。这本书旨在让读者了解在欧洲人到来之前影响到今天的第一民族的主要发展。正文分为三部分。第一本——“第一民族的历史”——对加拿大早期第一民族的独特文化作了简短的总结。它探索了在欧洲人到来之前实施的教育系统。第二部分探讨了政府和传教士到达后实施的教育制度。Llewellyn(2002)在多伦多大学法律期刊上发表的一篇题为“处理加拿大本土寄宿学校虐待的遗产”的文章，这是一个学术来源，特别描述了引入到第一民族的寄宿学校系统是如何影响上学的孩子的。这一点得到了其他非学术来源的补充，如克里斯约翰的《圆圈游戏》。另一个非学术资料来源是杜巴什的电影《加拿大的印第安寄宿学校》，它描述了土著儿童在寄宿学校的经历。第三部分解释了well(2012)在他的《Wawahte: Canadian Indian Residential Schools》一书中描述的Indian Control of Indian Education是如何影响First Nations communities中的教育的。这部分与当前的主题最相关，因为它探讨了第一民族如何与政府合作，以改善教育系统和一般学习环境。很明显，这种合作早该进行。因此，其结果将有利于参与其执行的双方。这些关于加拿大寄宿学校的文章的可信度是可以确定的，因为它从教师和学生的角度反映了存在于第一民族中的教育制度。
The Canadian Teacher Magazine is an educational scholarly resource meant for use by high school students and teachers, young Canadians, communities and anyone who might be interested in the history of First Nations education. It seeks to enable readers understand the major developments impacting First Nations before the Europeans arrival up to this day. The text has three portions. The first-“First Nations History”-gives a short summary of the distinctive cultures of Early First Nations in Canada. It explores the system of education that was implemented before the arrival of Europeans. The second portion explores the system of education that was implemented by the government and the missionaries after their arrival. Llewellyn’s (2002) article on ‘Dealing with the Legacy of Native Residential School Abuse in Canada’ by University of Toronto Law Journal, a scholarly source particularly describes how the residential schools system introduced to the First Nations affected school going children. This point is supplemented by other non scholarly sources such as Chrisjohn’s The Circle Game. Another non scholarly source is Dubash’s film titled Indian Residential Schools in Canada, which depicts the experiences of aboriginal kids in residential schools. The third part explains how Indian Control of Indian Education impacted education among First Nations communities as depicted by Wells (2012) in his book Wawahte: Canadian Indian Residential Schools. This part is the most relevant to the topic at hand as it explores how the First Nations worked with the government in order to improve the education system and general learning environment. It is rather obvious that this collaboration was long overdue. As such, its outcome would be of benefit to both partied involved in its implementation. The credibility of these articles on Canadian Residential Schools can be ascertained as it is a reflection of the education system that existed among First Nations from the context of teachers and students.
Today the Canadian Government has partnered with First Nations in this era of reconciliation to help establish stronger First Nations communities. Essential collaborative efforts are can be seen all across the country in areas as diverse as First Nations education, social services, governance, economies, culture, human right and resolution of outstanding claims.
The term First Nations is used to encompass the wide range of aboriginal peoples in Canada, which include Indians (status or non- Status), Metis, Inuit, aboriginals and native peoples. This paper is intended to provide readers interested in First Nations education with information about current developments in federal, provincial (public and separate) and band schools across the country. As well, this study is intended to give schools, school officials, teachers and parents or guardians examples of various approaches, so that they may improve their own situations. It is based on the results of a survey of schools and on submissions from Departments or Ministries of Education (Wells, 2012).
“第一民族”一词用于涵盖加拿大的各种土著民族，包括印第安人(有身份或无身份)、梅蒂斯人、因纽特人、土著和土著民族。这篇论文的目的是为对第一民族教育感兴趣的读者提供有关联邦、省(公立和独立)和全国各地的乐队学校的当前发展信息。此外，本研究旨在为学校、学校官员、教师和家长或监护人提供各种方法的例子，以便他们可以改善自己的情况。它是基于对学校的调查结果和教育部或部门提交的意见(Wells, 2012年)。
At present, the majority of First Nations students attend one of four types of school: federal day schools, which are located on reserved; provincial (public) day schools, usually off reserve; band schools on reserves; and separate schools, usually affiliated with church denominations. Since the policy of Indian Control of Indian (First Nation) Education was adopted in 1973, the number of federal schools has declined dramatically as bands have assumed responsibility for these schools (Wells, 2012). Most mainstream account accounts of the education of the education of First nations in Canada begin with the arrival of the Europeans. Although this may be accurate in terms of formal schooling, it is worthwhile to consider the education that was practiced before this contact.
Traditional Education传统教育
Long before the arrival of Europeans in North America, Indians had evolved their own form of education. It was an education in which the community and the natural environment were the classroom, and the land was seen as the mother of the people. Members of the community were the teachers, and each adult was responsible for ensuring that each child learned how to live a good life. The development of the whole person was emphasized through teachings which were often shared in storytelling. Each group of first Nations has its own legendary hero through which much learning was transmitted, including Raven, Nana bush and Weakachak. They were regarded as transformers or “tricksters of learning”, through which children learned such traditional varies as humility, courage, respect and honesty (Chrisjohn, Young, & Maraun, 1997). Although there was little segregation of family for events, whether social or work-related, children were taught that there were times when they should be silent and allow adults to speak without interruption. Silence was regarded as the cornerstone of character.
早在欧洲人到达北美之前，印第安人就已经发展了他们自己的教育形式。这是一种教育，社区和自然环境是课堂，土地被视为人民的母亲。社区成员是教师，每个成年人都有责任确保每个孩子学会如何过上好日子。通过经常在讲故事中分享的教导，整个人的发展被强调。每个第一民族群体都有自己的传奇英雄，其中包括瑞文、娜娜和威克扎克。他们被认为是变形人或“学习的骗子”，通过他们，孩子们学会了谦卑、勇气、尊重和诚实等传统的变化(Chrisjohn, Young， & Maraun, 1997)。尽管在家庭活动方面，无论是社交活动还是与工作有关的活动，几乎没有什么区别，但孩子们被教导，有时他们应该保持沉默，允许成年人说话而不被打断。沉默被认为是性格的基石。
Traditional education was largely an informal process that provided the young with the specific skills, attitudes and knowledge they needed to function in everyday life within the context of a spiritual world view. It taught many skills as part of everyday life, as can be seen in “Rabbit Snaring,” (Chrisjohn, Young, & Maraun, 1997). Jeanette Armstrong describes the traditional indigenous peoples’ view of education as “a natural process occurring during everyday activities…ensuring cultural continuity and survival of the mental, emotional, physical and spiritual well-being of the unit of its environment.” (Llewellyn, 2002).
Education Provided By the Federal Government and the Missionaries联邦政府和传教士提供的教育
In the early 17th century, missionaries were brought over from Europe to establish schools for Indians. This was believed to be the best method of bringing Christian civilization to the heathen “Natives.” The Roman Catholic Church was the first to get involved in educating Indians in the 1600s. The Protestant churches did not get involved until after the turn of the 19th century. Day schools were the first to be established. The day schools were largely abandoned in favor of residential (boarding) schools from the latter 1800s through to the 1950s, though a few day schools did continue to be built, and the building of day schools on reserves accelerated after 1950 (Llewellyn, 2002).
在17世纪早期，从欧洲引进传教士为印第安人建立学校。这被认为是把基督教文明带给异教徒“土著人”的最好方法。在17世纪，罗马天主教会是第一个参与教育印第安人的教会。新教教会直到19世纪初才参与进来。走读学校是最早建立起来的。从19世纪后期到20世纪50年代，走读学校在很大程度上被废弃，取而代之的是寄宿学校，但也有一些走读学校继续建立起来，并且在1950年后，在储备区内建立走读学校的步伐加快(Llewellyn, 2002)。
Residential (Boarding) Schools
Residential schools were designed to isolate children from their parents and the influences of the reserve. Schools were often located many miles away from the child’s community. Children stayed at the residential schools for at least ten months of the year, from the ages of six (sometimes younger) through to 18 years. Residential schools provided a very basic education designed to prepare students for futures as working farmers, housemaids, mechanics or the like. It was to make provision for the domestic and Christian life of the Indian children.
The residential schools were oppressive. After being separated from their families, the children were then subjected to a severe regimen of work. The boys were expected to clean the stables, butcher cattle, mend broken machinery and work in the fields. In fact, by the “half-day plan,” they were expected to spend as much time in this kind of manual labor as in school. The same was true of the girls who had spend half of their time doing laundry, sewing, working in the kitchen and doing other forms of housework (Llewellyn, 2002).
The residential school was most notable for the incredibly high mortality rates among the students. Many died from the effects of tuberculosis. At about the turn of the century, it was estimated that 50% of the children who passed through these schools did not live to benefit from the education they had received therein (Dubash, 2008). The federal government became involved in the education of the Indians in the mid-1800s. The residential schools became jointly operated by the government and the church. The church’s duty was to manage the school, contribute part of the operating cost, and most importantly, provide Christian guidance to the children. The government was responsible for inspection, special rules and regulations as well as making financial grants. The highest recorded number of such schools in Canada was 80, in 1933. The enrolment in the schools varied anywhere from 50 or so to over 400 students of all ages (Wells, 2012). Most of these schools were closed by themed-1980s. However, in Saskatchewan, several remain but under the control of the First nations bands and offer culturally sensitive environment to the students.
The residential schools have had a lasting negative effect on First Nations people as a whole. These schools removed children from their parents and their communities. Generations of Indian children were denied a normal family childhood. They were denied the association with family, with their extended family’s perceptions of spiritualism, of acceptable behavior and of the means of survival. For many, residential schools meant the loss of their native language, the principal means by which culture is accumulated, shared and transmitted from generation to generation. The result was a tragic interruption of culture. The legacy of the residential schools was one of cultural conflict, alienation, poor self-concept and lack of preparation for independence, for jobs and for life in general. Much of what was learned and experienced in residential schools was a direct and purposeful contradiction to the philosophy of traditional First Nations societies as a whole.
Integration- Education provided by provincial Governments融合-省政府提供的教育
“To civilize and Christianize” gave way in the 1950s and 1960s to a policy of integration. Integration, administratively defined, was the process of having First Nations children attend provincial schools (Loyie, 2009). Since the policy of integration was introduced in 1948, the government of Canada has at its highest point been successful in making provision for about 65% (about 43% today) of First Nations students in “integrated” schools. The integration program was introduced and continued with little or no discussion with First Nations parents and children or the Non- Native community. No specific training of teachers or of the national curriculum was designed to put up with the children of another culture.
“教化和基督教化”在20世纪50年代和60年代让位于一项融合政策。从行政上来说，一体化是指让原住民儿童就读省级学校的过程(Loyie, 2009年)。自从1948年实行种族融合政策以来，加拿大的政府在其鼎盛时期成功地为“种族融合”的学校提供了约65%(今天约43%)的第一民族学生。在引进和继续融入原住民的计划时，很少或根本没有与原住民父母和子女或非原住民社区进行讨论。对教师或国家课程的具体培训并没有设计来容忍另一种文化的儿童。
In 1967, Dr. Harry Hawthorn, a professor at the University of British Columbia, released a two-volume study on contemporary Indians (Wells, 2012). In 1972, the Winnipeg Free Press revealed a number of Hawthorn’s findings on Indian education. The article stated that “integration” has not provided the answer to the demand for significant education for First Nations children. Integration has, in many schools, resulted in “only a physical presence” (Chrisjohn, Young, & Maraun, 1997). This program has not been one of true integration where the different cultures are recognized; rather it has been a program of assimilation where First nation students are absorbed into the dominant society.
Indian Control of Indian (First Nation) Education印度人控制印第安人(第一民族)教育
In the 1960s, First Nations leaders began to react openly to the deplorable conditions of their people. In response to the educational concerns being raised by First Nations people, the federal governments Standing Committee on Indian Affairs was charged with the responsibility of preparing a report on Indian education. This report, presented in the House of Commons on June 22, 1971, unfolded before the Canadian public the educational problems facing Indian people (Loyie, 2009). Some of the findings included: A drop-out rate four times the national average (96% of Indian children never finished high school); A related unemployment rate averaging 50% for adult males, going as high as 90% in some communities; “inaccuracies and omissions” relating to the Indian contribution to Canadian history in texts used in federal and provincial schools; An age-grade retardation rooted in language conflict and early disadvantage, which accelerated as the child progressed through the primary and elementary grades (Dubash, 2008).
20世纪60年代，第一民族领导人开始公开对其人民的悲惨处境作出反应。为了回应第一民族人民提出的教育问题，联邦政府印第安人事务常设委员会负责编写一份关于印第安人教育的报告。这份报告于1971年6月22日提交给下议院，向加拿大公众展示了印度人面临的教育问题(Loyie, 2009)。其中一些发现包括:辍学率是全国平均水平的四倍(96%的印度儿童没有完成高中学业);成年男性的相关失业率平均为50%，在一些社区甚至高达90%;关于联邦和省学校使用的教科书中印第安人对加拿大历史的贡献的“不准确和遗漏”;一种源于语言冲突和早期劣势的年龄级发育迟缓，随着孩子在小学和小学阶段的发展，这种情况会加剧(Dubash, 2008年)。
The First Nations peoples’ response was generated by the 1969 government White Paper, based on the goal of eliminating the special status of Indians in the wake of a First Nations school strike in North East Alberta in 1971 (protesting school facilities on reserves). The National Indian brotherhood (now the assembly of First Nations) established a working committee that would reflect a national position on education (Llewellyn, 2002). The committee’s work culminated in the document, Indian Control of Indian Education (ICIE). In February 1973, the minister for Indian Affairs gave official departmental recognition to the ICIE document stating that: ” I have given the National Indian Brotherhood my assurance that I and my department are fully committed to realizing the educational goals for the Indian people which are set forth in the Brotherhood’s proposal” (Wells, 2012).
First nations Philosophy of education is in many ways more valid and universal than the one which prevails in educational circles today. Instead of a one-sided view of history, First Nations want their children to learn a Canadian History that honors their customs, accomplishments, values and contributions. As George Manuel stated: “We want our children to learn science and technology so that they can promote the harmony of man with nature…not destroy it. We want our children to learn about other peoples in literature and social studies, and in the process to learn to respect the values and cultures of others” (Llewellyn, 2002).
ICIE is a four point policy dealing with parental responsibility, school curriculum and programs, teachers and school facilities.
Parental Responsibility
Under the terms of the 11 major treaties between the Indians and the federal government and the Indian act, the federal government of Canada is obligated to provide funds for the education of Indians. This is an incontestable fact. In no way does the principle of “Indian control” or “local control” contradict or nullify this fundamental federal obligation. The government’s financial responsibility does not justify its dominance over lives of Indian people. This policy statement demands that Indian parents participate as partners with the government in the education of their children.
Teachers and Counselors教师和辅导员
The federal government must help train Indians as teachers and counselors, in co-operation with First Nations peoples. Non- Indian teachers and counselors should receive additional training to prepare them for cross-cultural situations and teach them how to make the curriculum for Indian children more meaningful, i.e., more relevant, and also how to instill pride and cultural awareness in their students.
联邦政府必须与原住民合作，帮助培训印第安人成为教师和顾问。非印度教师和顾问应该接受额外的培训，使他们为跨文化情况做好准备，并教他们如何使针对印度儿童的课程更有意义，即更相关，以及如何在学生中灌输自豪感和文化意识。
Facilities
Educational facilities must meet the needs of the local population. Substandard buildings and equipment must be replaced.
Conclusion
From this overview, it is obvious that the missionaries and both federal and provincial governments have failed in 300 years to administer an effective educational program for First Nations. This failure has been attributed to several factors; namely the absence of a consistent philosophy of education with clearly articulated goals and objectives, failure to provide a meaningful program based on First Nations reality, a lack of qualified teaching staff, inadequate facilities, and most important , the absence of parental and community involvement in the education of their children.
Studies on the effects on integration have shown that First Nations children reveal patterns that can be identified as alienation and identity conflict. The First Nations student is caught between two cultures and is, therefore, literally outside of, and between, both.
Through the policy of ICIE, the effect of parental responsibility and local control has clearly brought about positive changes within the past two decades. These include an increase in the numbers of First Nations students completing high school and entering universities and colleges, an increasing number of First nations teachers, and increasingly more research being done by First Nations providing valuable insights on the effect the various forms of education are having. More importantly, the problems and challenges associated with ICIE are becoming clearer and attempts are being made towards resolving them.
Critical to improving the situation is the need for legal recognition of First Nations jurisdiction over education. This was identified very early on as a serious problem. It was noted that the Indian Act presents no direct legal foundation for the shifting of control of education from the minister to Indian bands. It empowers the minister to enter into contracts with territorial and provincial governments, public school boards, or charitable or religious organizations, but not with Indian bands. Clearly, the fundamental obstacle to Indian Control of Indian Education is the lack of legislation. Without it, we can expect only minor adjustment to the existing situation. With it, an Indian band or group of bands would be able to write its own Education Act, and determine its own administrative unite, policies, aims and objectives.
改善这种情况的关键是必须在法律上承认第一民族对教育的管辖权。这在很早就被认为是一个严重的问题。有人指出，《印第安人法》没有为教育控制权从部长转移到印第安人团伙提供直接的法律基础。它授权部长与地方和省级政府、公立学校董事会、慈善组织或宗教组织签订合同，但不与印度乐队签订合同。显然，印度人控制印度教育的根本障碍是缺乏立法。没有它，我们只能期望对现有局势作出微小的调整。有了它，一个或几个印度乐队就可以制定自己的教育法案，并确定自己的行政统一、政策、目标和目标。
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