北美留学作业写作参考-工作专业化实例。本文是一篇来自北美留学作业写作参考范文，主要内容讲述工作专业化是一个术语，用于描述工作被划分为由单个个人完成的较小单元的程度。它包括一个人重复完成完成任务的单个步骤的分工。它使工人能够成为一项任务的专家，但任务的重复性可能会让人感到无聊。
例如，在使用批量生产的面包店中，一个半熟练的人准备面团，另一个把面团切成块，然后是一名准备面包或蛋糕的工人，另一名装饰面包或蛋糕，还有其他人送蛋糕。同样的工人为每一批面包蛋糕或其他甜点做同样的任务。下面就一起来看一下这篇北美留学作业写作参考范文的具体内容。
Work specialization is a term used to describe the extent to which work is divided into smaller units which is completed by a single individual. it includes division of labor in which a single person completes repetitively a single step of the complete task. it enables workers to become experts at a single task but the repetitive nature of the task can be boring.
E.g. in a bakery that uses batch production , one semi skilled individual prepares the dough, the other cuts the dough into pieces followed by a worker who prepares the bread or cake and the other who decorates it and still others that deliver the cake. The same workers do the same task for each batch of bread cake or other desserts.
DEPARTMENTALISATION is the basis on which the jobs that are divided due to work specialization are grouped together into logical units. the grouping is based on common aspects of the jobs that can be coordinated and evaluated. there are different techniques of departmentalization:部门化是将因工作专业化而划分的工作分组为逻辑单元的基础。分组是基于可以被协调和评估的作业的共同方面。有不同的部门化技术
Functional departmentalization-is when jobs are grouped according to activities or its functions. It is a very common form of departmentalization. Functional departments usually include marketing , sales, human resource, finance departments respectively. The advantage is that workers specializing in the tasks are put together.
E.g. Shell is divided along various functional departments such as marketing department ,project development, training and research, human resource department, finance management department and operational department.
职能部门化是指根据活动或其职能对工作进行分组。这是一种非常常见的部门化形式。职能部门通常分别包括市场部、销售部、人力资源部、财务部。其优点是将专门从事这项任务的工人集中在一起。
例如，壳牌分为市场部、项目开发、培训研究、人力资源部、财务管理部和运营部等多个职能部门。
Product or service departmentalization-is when the organization is divided on the basis of different products or services created by the firm. This helps to focus on specific product lines efficiently.
e.g. insurance companies usually departmentalize along different services such as a life insurance department, a fire insurance department, an accident and health department , liability department and others.
产品或服务部门化是指根据公司创建的不同产品或服务对组织进行划分。这有助于有效地专注于特定的产品线。
例如，保险公司通常按照不同的服务部门划分，如人寿保险部门、火灾保险部门、事故与健康部门、责任部门和其他部门。
Geographical departmentalization-refers to when the organization is divided with respect to different areas of geography served by the business. it is usually opted in multinational firms or firms that have operations in different regions of the same country.
e.g. HEC Pakistan is divided into its regional centers with their own regional directors. the regional centers are regional centre Karachi, regional centre Lahore and regional centre Quetta.
地理部门化是指根据业务所服务的不同地理区域对组织进行划分。它通常被跨国公司或在同一国家不同地区开展业务的公司所选择。
例如，HEC巴基斯坦分为区域中心，并有自己的区域总监。区域中心为区域中心卡拉奇、区域中心拉合尔和区域中心奎达。
Process departmentalization-is when the organization is divided according to different processes used in creating a product or service of the business. It is used when different processes requiring different machinery and skills to make a product are used in businesses.
e.g.in the insurance companies, to claim insurance for an accident you have to pass through many departments to complete a process. first the application department takes the application followed the survey department that survey the accident then the payment processing department.
流程部门化是指根据创建业务产品或服务时使用的不同流程对组织进行划分。当在企业中使用需要不同机械和技能来制造产品的不同工艺时，就会使用它。
例如，在保险公司，要为事故索赔，你必须经过多个部门才能完成一个流程。首先是申请部门受理申请，然后是调查事故的调查部门，然后是付款处理部门。
Customer departmentalization-is when the organization is divided to offer their services or products to separate identifiable customer groups. it is used when the firm caters to the needs of separate customer categories.
e.g. Nike the sports goods manufacturer divides its product lines into customer categories such as professional athletes, amateur athletes, males athletes, women athletes. And therefore has divisions that caters to the needs of these separate customer groups.
客户部门化是指将组织划分为不同的可识别客户群体来提供服务或产品。当公司满足不同客户类别的需求时，就会使用它。
耐克这家体育用品制造商将其产品线划分为职业运动员、业余运动员、男运动员、女运动员等客户类别。因此，我们的部门能够满足这些独立客户群体的需求。
CHAIN OF COMMAND 指挥系统
Chain of command-refers to the unbroken line of authority that starts from the top level of the organization to the lower level. It shows the relationship between individuals working in an organization and to whom they report to and who they are responsible for. It works on the principle of unity of command which states that worker should have only one superior to report to in order to avoid confusion. it is an increasingly obsolete phenomenon in the dynamic firms that do not follow the strict hierarchical organization structure.
e.g.in the U.S. marine the lowest level fire teams are commanded by a corporal, three such teams form a rifle squad that is commanded by a corporal who in turn is commanded by the lt. the lieutenant , is commanded by the captain and finally the captain reports to the lt. colonel…in this example the line of authority starts from the lieutenant. colonel extending all the way to the members of the fire team.the following figure shows the chain of command the blue arrows that face downawards show the line of authority.
指挥系统是指从组织的最高级别开始到较低级别的不间断的权力线。它显示了在组织中工作的个人与他们向谁报告以及他们对谁负责之间的关系。它遵循统一指挥的原则，即工人只能向一名上级报告，以避免混乱。在动态企业中，不遵循严格的层级组织结构是一种日益过时的现象。
例如，在美国海军陆战队中，最低级别的射击队由一名下士指挥，三支这样的队伍组成一个步枪队，由一名下士指挥，下士由中尉指挥，由上尉指挥，最后上尉向中校报告。在这个例子中，权力线从中尉开始。上校一直延伸到消防队的成员。下图显示了指挥链——面朝下的蓝色箭头显示了权力线。
SPAN OF CONTROL 控制跨度
Span of control-refers to the number of subordinates working directly under a manager. span of control can be:控制范围是指直接在经理手下工作的下属人数。控制范围可以是
wide-with a larger number of subordinates working under one manager, or ,大量下属在一个经理手下工作，或者，
narrow- with lesser number of subordinates working under a manger.有限制的——在经理手下工作的下属人数较少。
The chain of command and span of control are inversely proportional a wide span of control would mean a shorter chain of command and a narrower span of control would lead to a taller chain of command. Wider span of control are regarded as beneficial because it shortens the chain of command and bureaucratic structure in an organization and leads to more delegation to employees .However a very wide span of control would cause controlling problems for the manger.
e.g. in the above example of the marine forces. the corporal of the fire team has 3 fire team members working under him. so the span of control is 3.furthermore,3 such fire teams come under the control ofthe lieutenant , therefore his span of control is also 3.
指挥系统和控制跨度成反比——宽的控制跨度意味着更短的指挥链，而窄的控制跨度将导致更高的指挥链。更广泛的控制范围被认为是有益的，因为它缩短了组织中的指挥链和官僚结构，并导致更多的权力下放给员工。然而，非常广泛的控制范围会给经理带来控制问题。
例如在海军陆战队的上述例子中。消防队下士手下有三名消防队员。因此控制跨度为3。此外，有3支这样的消防队由中尉控制，因此他的控制范围也是3。
CENTRALISATION AND DECENTRALISATION 集权与分权
Centralization and decentralization refer to the degree to which decisions making authority is distributed within an organization.
集权与分权是指决策权在组织内的分配程度。
Centralization-is when the entire decision making authority is in the hands of the central management of the firm and no lower level involvement is required in making decisions for the firm. it is useful when the decision are strategic and serious in nature and involve a lot of risk. however the lower level employees feel alienated and demotivated as they feel that they have no say in the decisions that affect their work life.
e.g. McDonalds practice centralization because as a franchise all the advertising decision have to be approved by the top level management. Every decision involving the procedure to create burgers and employee training ,even cleaning schedules is decided by the top level management. Other firms that have stable practices also use centralization.
集权是指整个决策权掌握在公司的中央管理层手中，不需要更低级别的人员参与公司的决策。当决策是战略性的、严肃的并且涉及大量风险时，它是有用的。然而，较低级别的员工感到被疏远和失去动力，因为他们觉得自己在影响工作生活的决策中没有发言权。
例如，麦当劳实行集中经营，因为作为特许经营，所有广告决策都必须得到最高管理层的批准。每一个涉及制作汉堡程序和员工培训，甚至清洁时间表的决定都由最高级别的管理层决定。其他具有稳定实践的公司也使用集中化。
Decentralization-is when the decision making authority is delegated to the managerial levels just below the top level i.e. not all the decision making authority lies in the hands of the top level management. Decentralized organizations are often more flexible and productive at deciding because the managers are closer to the action and the workers are motivated as they feel more involved in the decision making process, however it is not suitable for strategic decisions.
E.g. Khaadi Khaas ,the clothing brand in Pakistan employees decentralization as it allows the store managers at different outlets discretion in how they want to set up or decorate the outlet. The decoration need not be approved by the regional managers.
分权是指将决策权下放给最高层以下的管理层，即并非所有决策权都掌握在最高层管理层手中。分权的组织在决策时往往更灵活、更高效，因为管理者更接近行动，员工也更有动力参与决策过程，但这不适合战略决策。
例如，Khaadi Khaas，巴基斯坦的服装品牌，员工权力下放，因为它允许不同门店的店长自由决定如何设立或装饰门店。装修无需获得区域经理的批准。
FORMALISATION 正规化
Formalization-refers to the extent to which jobs are standardized within an organization .it refers to the degree to which the employee has to follow the given pattern to do his/her job.
正规化是指一个组织内工作标准化的程度。它指的是员工必须在多大程度上遵循给定的模式来完成他的/她的工作。
A highly formalized job-is when the worker knows exactly what is asked from him, he cannot add any innovations to performing the task and there are a great many organizational rules to follow and a given set of procedures to follow.
e.g. Armed forces are highly formalized jobs as there are strict procedures at every step for the workers to follow. The time to wake up train eat everything is standardized and no discretion is allowed at jobs.
一份高度正规化的工作是，当工人确切地知道向他提出了什么要求时，他不能在执行任务时添加任何创新，而且有很多组织规则和给定的程序需要遵循。
例如，武装部队是高度正规化的工作，因为每一步都有严格的程序供工人遵循。起床时间火车上吃东西的时间是标准化的，工作中不允许有任何自由裁量权。
A lowly formalized job-is when the job behavior of the work is less programmed or subjected to numerous rules ,he can exercise much discretion in the job and has a somewhat free hand to add his inputs in the job and there are no strict procedures to follow.
e.g. scientists are workers who have low formalized job as there are no strict procedures to follow while experimenting.
一个低级正规化的工作是指工作行为没有那么程序化或受到许多规则的约束，他可以在工作中行使很大的自由裁量权，并在一定程度上自由地添加他在工作中的投入，而且没有严格的程序可遵循。
例如，科学家是那些没有正式工作的工人，因为在实验时没有严格的程序可循。
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